of any, and according to what several inhabitants of those places have assured me, this way should be particularly the choice of a traveller, for ancient medals are so common it seems at Arachba 1, and some other places on the river, that in default of curious purchasers, who exceeding rarely pass that way, the women adapt them for ornaments (as elsewhere chequins) and few are without them; likewise antique stones are here daily found, and sold for little. However, both merchants and travellers are deterred from steering this course, being liable everywhere to impositions and in some places to being plundered, tho' I've known Armenians that had gone that way, without any such grievous impediments, and who gave me a different character of these people in general.

3D. Some travellers have chose to direct their course viz.

From Aleppo to Geboul 2, a small village upon the edge of the desart, one easy days journey.

From Geboul to Jaiba 3, a town in ruins, 2 days journey into the desert.

From Jaiba to Arachba 4, a town bigger than Aleppo, and standing on the river Euphrates, 1 1/2 days journey 5.

From Arachba to Ana, upon the river-side, 3 days journey.

From Ana to Haditha, one day.

From Haditha to Juba 6, one day.

From Juba to Heyt 7, one day.

When arrived at Heyt both danger and difficulty is over, for from hence to Bagdat is not above two days and half journey, and tho' sometimes merchants with goods are disturbed by the Arabs in crossing from river to river, I never heard that European travellers were molested; and, if their

1 Rahba: 26 miles S.E. of Deir ez Zor

2 Jebbul (see p. 9, note 3).

3 Taiyibe.

4 Rahba had of course its great days, probably greater than Karkisiya (Circesium), its neighbour across the river, but it had long since fallen from high estate, and in Beawes' day must already have been deserted; our nearest contemporary--Olivier (1797)--saw only a fortress and a ruined site.

5 Beawes' information was at fault. The route between Taiyibe and Rahba was never used by the Caravans, and we have only one record of its being used by an individual traveller-namely Olivier in 1797.

6 Island of Jubba.

7 Hit.

curiosity will excuse the sight of that city, the passage from Heyt down the Euphrates to Bassora is quite secure.

4TH. With the Arabian Caravans, of which there are two from Aleppo, one to Bassora and the other to Bagdat, and often set out together, keeping company till they arrive at a place called Cobiesie 1, which is a poor village within four hours of Heyt. This latter route we preferred, and that our experience may be of some utility to future travellers, I shall here set down the necessary provisions for such a journey. And first, I think whoever by common necessity or curiosity urged a large Tartaravan (or litter) with the improvement of a double ceiling will render his passage easy; the carriage here being the principal consideration, for as to other inconveniences it is supposed that those who undertake to travel any parts of the East are informed that long stages, a slow pace, course far [i.e. fare], and a warm sun are to be the common trials of their patience and constitution.

2DLY. Be careful with what Arab you engage for the camels, as choice and recommendation in [this] as much concerns your welfare in the desart as the difference of commanders at sea.

3DLY. To visit the principal Shaik with a small present, as a vest of cloth or the like.

4THLY. Agree with the said Shaik, and procure from him in writing what you are to pay [for] each camel for desert dues, whereby disputes are avoided at the journeys end.

5THLY. Concerning water, it is customary for travellers to agree with their conductor for supplying throughout the journey and are [we?] paid for ourselves and two servants one and a half camel load, which they reckon six loaders or large skins, and these they oblige themselves to keep replenished as they find water in the desart; and if travellers are careful and don't regard the expence carrying a few more loaders than usual, they may drink what is wholesome the greatest part of the way, by seeing themselves the said loaders filled where the water is best and strictly in charging their own servants to be watchful of it; which we imprudently

1 Kubaisa.

trusted to the Arabs and were served accordingly, for notwithstanding the provision we made was extraordinary I gave him, I question if two skins were ever employed for our particular use, or that we fared a whit the better for such precaution.

6THLY. Concerning the other provisions, a person setting out for Aleppo may procure variety of articles that will endure the journey, but the grand articles are rice, bread, coffee, and country butter, of which a large store should be provided, as all the Arabs that attend the loads expect to partake thereof and indeed deserve it, being always ready and desirous to afford the servants their assistance. Saltmeats are very improper for the desart, as they heat and augment thirst (which without such increase is hard to satisfie); nor does much of any food agree with this journey, but eating little and drinking often of weak sour punch is the diet to preserve health and greatly lessen the fatigue; wherefore variety of food is an useless embarrassment, and the best in my opinion that can be carried is fowls, which at night we used to eat with pullow [pilau], or made into broth and dress to eat cold the next day at noon. All fruits that can be preserved any time as also roots are excellent refreshments for the desart.

Of liquors the principal to be provided is shrub, which, made into weak punch, is not only the most refreshing draught but is equally wholesome, particularly to prevent the bad effects of the desart waters, as we very sensibly experienced; for some days before our arrival at Bassora, the shrub being finished which till then had Preserved us free from any disorder. Leban 1 also with water makes a cool and pleasant mixture but is apt to offend the stomach. As to wine, brandy and other spirituous liquors a very small quantity is sufficient, the heat rendering them not desirable and unless indisposed the use of them hurtful.

7THLY. We agreed with our conductor for camels at thirty five dollars per load of 500 lb weight. And there needs no care about the size of package, the Arab being exceeding dextrous at accommodating the burthens. For a servant is

1 Sour milk or buttermilk (Arabic laban).

always paid half a camel load and for ourselves that went in a double cradle (in their language called mahoffi 1) we paid fifty dollars.

We provided one small post tent for our own accommodation and another for the servants. Our cots we made to stand a more than ordinary distance from the ground, as a security from the snakes and scorpions that are common it seems in the desart. And having presented our conductor with a vest of fine broad cloth, all was ready for a march.

1745. Aug. 5th. This morning about seven we left Aleppo, in expectation to join our caravan at Spheera 2 three hours off, but on the road were informed they had proceeded to Gaboul 3, and when arrived there they were gone a league farther, as accordingly we found them about four in the afternoon, having then been riding and fasting, which made this days journey very disagreeable; but a fresh westerly wind which lasted the whole day made some amends.

We found our tents pitched and all our baggage about it in good order. The evening was delightfully cool, and the night so cold that a quilt was scarce sufficient covering. About this place it seems are abundance of scorpions, and a Jew merchant in the night was wounded by one; which gave him great pain, but found relief in a few hours from the application of a squeezed garlick. We neither felt or saw any. Consider our having cots a good prevention.

1 Mihaffa (Arabic) is the same as Roberts' kajawa (Persian)--panniers or wooden cages slung in pairs across the camels ; usually used by natives for transporting their women-folk.

2 Sifra, Sfira : a small village 14 miles S.E. of Aleppo. Caravans coming up from Iraq halted here for customs inspection.

3. El Jebbul : a village of salt-workers on the edge of the great saline depression Sabkha Jebbul, which supplies the salt industry of the neighbourhood. Teixeira had already described the 'Salt Lake' and the great value of their salt deposits. Parsons in his Travels in Asia and Africa, etc., describes how the depression fills up during the winter with water, fresh enough for his horse to drink, but by the end of May it is dry, and in June it is covered with a cake of salt. Maundrell, Chaplain to the Factory at Aleppo, gives a good account of 'the Valley of Salt' in the 4^th edition of his Journey from Aleppo to Jerusalem in 1697. See also Drummond's Travels, p. 193 ; Russell's Natural History of Aleppo, vol. I, pp. 55-6 ; Teonge's Diary, p. 154, and Note in Appendix. Musil gives an historical sketch of Gabbul up to Yaqut's day in Appendix VIII of his Palmyrena.

6th. This morning early we mounted and for the first time tried our mahoffi; but the camel happened to be as great a stranger to this machine as ourselves, and with difficulty consented to the burthen, which neither being to-day well fixed made us conclude this manner of travelling nothing near so commodious as we had imagined; but the Arabs assured us a day or two would remedy all such inconveniences. At ten this morning we again encamped, this small journey into the desart being it seems designed to separate the caravans with any further communication with Aleppo, as otherwise there would be no end to delays; and also this day is designed to put everything in due order for a regular march in future. Our course to-day was somewhat to southward of the East, and the country the same as about Aleppo, only quite a level. A fresh westerly wind continues, whereby we find not the least inconveniency from heat, tho' otherwise it must be very hot, for we observe a single tent is but a slender defence against the sun and the ground reflects the rays with great force. We have given orders always to pitch our tents somewhat apart from and to windward of the rest of the caravans, as else at the time of cooking you are molested with smoke and also with dust from the camels continually rambling about you.

The order for diet in the caravan is coffee in the morning before mounting; then when they stop about noon for an hour coffee again and what else any[one] has ready drest; in the evening it is pleasant for anyone to observe soon after encamping there appears almost as many fires as men and all hands set to preparing the pallow or what better their stores may afford. The water here is very foul, but we brought from Aleppo (a lucky thought) some fine hebit 1, which, formed into an Hypocrites's sleeve 2, makes an excellent

1 A puzzling word. Can there be a connection with 'habit-shirt,' defined in the O.E.D. as 'a kind of chemisette with linen collar, worn by women under the outer bodice'?

2 Hippocrates' bag or sleeve, a conical bag of cotton, linen or flannel used as a filter or strainer. Bacon's Sylva (1626): 'Passing it [Ippocrasse] through a wollen bagge, which they call Hippocrates sleeve.' ' Ippocrasse' was a wine (vinum Hippocratum) so called because filtered through Hippocrates' sleeve.

strainer. Our caravan is reckoned large, consisting of two thousand odd hundred camels 1, of which about four hundred are loaded with merchandise and near as many more with passengers and baggage, the rest mounted by the Arabs themselves or empty for want of freight, the returns from Aleppo being considerable compared to what is carried from Bassora; and what likewise renders the caravan numerous, independent of merchants, are the armed Arabs in case of necessity. The Shauks [Sheikhs] and their attendants and many poor Arabs join the caravans from Bassora with one, two or three camels, either loaded with things of small import to barter at Aleppo, or in hopes the greater cameleers may favour them with some freight back again. We have several horses and mules in the caravan which are carried for sale, being cheap in Aleppo and afford a good profit at Bassora; but they arrive there such skeletons that many months are necessary to [recover] them, especially those that have performed the journey mounted.

This afternoon, not finding here water sufficient to supply the caravan, we went on an hour farther. A pleasant westerly wind and a very cold night

7th. Mounted this morning about six and travelled till noon, when we stopped and unloaded the camels; but I think to little purpose, for in half an hour we were again under way. At seven finished our days journey. The country quite level and fair horizon all round. The wind to-day fresh and westerly; our course S.S.E. No water. Night cold.

8th. Mounted between four and five and travelled till noon, when we rested an hour and proceeded till seven. The country and course the same. Wind westerly and heat moderate. Evening agreeable. Night cold.

I asked our conductor today by what means they directed their course; who told [me] there are beaten paths throughout the journey (which 1 afterwards found) wherein the guides constantly keep, and thereby hower [i.e. however] the caravan extraviales 2 on one side or other, they are sufficient to keep

1 See Introduction.

2 This appears to be a copyist's error for 'extravagates' (wanders).

them in due course. But these paths are sometimes by gales of wind covered with sand, and then the caravan is obliged to halt, and the guides spread themselves, as far as not losing sight of the body will permit, to discover a tract; or, not succeeding therein, wait till night and proceed by the stars. And one evening desiring them to shew me those they particularly observed, there was scarce an Arab but manifested such a knowledge of the heavens as I little expected, and that which they said was their chief director between Bassora and Aleppo, they pointed to, calling Judda 1, and is the north star.

We observed no order in our march, but spread over the waste in different figures; which being so large, the caravan affords a diverting prospect, especially the objects being so various, and to us strange. And one reason for their spreading I suppose may be on account of the camels, who feed as they travel, having absolutely no other provision than what they meet with in the way, which hitherto has been only a small sort of farzbush, and that in no great plenty.

8th. Set out this morning about four, lasted [sic] the same till about nine, when we got amongst hills quite barren and parched up, and tho' the westerly wind continues it is extremely hot; at one we pitched our tents, being come to water, which is not bad, and we shall therefore stay to enjoy it till tomorrow. Course today S.S.E. Our mahoffi terribly fatigues us, and was certainly only intended for such who have only no legs or can bestow them independent of their bodies. It is impossible to maintain a tolerable easy posture for two minutes together, and the motions moreover are so diabolical that I have frequently in a day worse qualms than a breeding woman and am sooner [sorer?] bruised by night than Sancho in his government. However, it keeps the immediate heat of the sun from us, which we should probably find at this season insupportable; tho' here also the benefit is not much greater than being baked instead of roasted, and therefore the mahoffi is, ut a trumpery machine, and a wheelbarrow in comparison to a princely carriage.

This evening were killed in our quarters two snakes, of

1 El jady (Arabic), the Pole Star.

which it seems there is no want in the desart and in some places very large ones. I enquired of Hodgee 1 Salek, our conductor, what remedy they had when bit thereby; who told me none but Allah Kerim, that God was great and protected them, not having in his time known one instance of their doing harm. The evening and night agreeable, cool.

10th. Today being the Jews Sabbath, they prevailed on the Caravan Bashi with (30) thirty dollars not to proceed, which seems a trifling sum to detain so large a company; but he commands and it may be supposed that nobody bid against him. This conductor in chief is always a man of extraordinary note amongst the Desert Arabs in general, and ours was called Said Mahud, and his business is to protect the caravan from being molested by any tribe we may meet in our way, for which he receives a Tanto per load. But altho' this man is principally necessary for the security of the caravan, he is not absolutely sufficient, for we have also several others of different tribes, who likewise receive a gratuity for their protection; and this expense amounts to the merchants in the whole, from Aleppo to Bassora, to about (14) fourteen dollars each load; but provisions should be excused for onty a small present. As we were necessitated to defer proceeding on our journey till tomorrow, I fain would have employed the idle day in visiting a town we saw in sight, about seven miles distance, called by the Arabs Jaiba 2, which seems a large place, having a large tower in the middle. The Arabs inform us it is a place of great antiquity but now in ruins, which is all they know of the matter; and as to my going thither no one that I invited would accompany me thither, or could I prevail by any means with Hodgee Salek to supply me with a beast and some Arabs for enjoying the pleasure alone; whether because there might be dangers and anv accidents be imputed to his defect of care, or that Arabs don't approve of our examining these places in the desart, I know not; but all the reasons he gave were, the undertaking was improper and that the sight would rather

1 Haji: one who has made the pilgrimage to Mecca.

2 Taiyibe: for fuller description see pp. 85-6, note 3.

afford a horror than pleasure, as time and other circumstances have produced a scene which only serves at present to excite a melancholy reflection of the instability of human things. The place, they say, had some inhabitants till within these four years, but now totally deserted 1, every company of Arabs in their passage despoiling them at pleasure and otherwise contributing to render their situation intolerable. At a small distance there is another town called Suckna 2, which is inhabited. At Jaiba is a spring of hot water 3; from hence to Suckna six hours of a caravan, and from Suckna to Tadmor or Palmiza 4 fourteen hours; those famous ruins bear of us here S.W.

We got acquainted today with an inhabitant of Arachba, who informed us there are many ruins about this part of the country, but none that bespeak any magnificence or very great antiquity, for as to Tabia which I have expressed so much concern at not visiting, he assures us that little else besides the tower and ruins pertaining thereto are of stone, the rest being only earth. He says the country about the Euphrates, from whence we are not above a days journey, so abounded formerly with towns and villages that only between Dier 5 and Arachba, which is also a days journey, there were upwards of 300, whereof scarce one at present remains entire 6.

1 Inhabited in 1691 at the time of Lanoy's and Goodyear's second visit. Niebuhr reported it destroyed in about 1730-40.

2 Sukhne: once a town, now a poor village; it has hot springs, hence its name, and a fortress. Doubtless once one of the Roman frontier blockhouses, and always a station on the caravan route from the Euphrates to central Syria.

3 The springs are sulphurous, there is no evidence of the excellent water from which it is supposed to take its name. 'Tiebe, so called, as they say, from the goodness of the waters, the word signifying good, but we found them not so over excellent' (Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly, 1890, P. 296, from the original manuscript of Dr William Halifax, 'Relation of a Voyage to Tadmor in 1691').

4 Palmyra.

5 Deir ez Zor: 70 miles away.

6 His informant was correct. The section of the Euphrates Valley referred to is that where the Khabur joins it, and is a region abounding in historic names. It was actually the Eastern frontier of the Roman Empire under Diocletian. Circesium and Rahba probably vaunted considerable 'magnificence' in their great days, and the sites must have had an antiquity much older than Rome.

This watering place is called Ain il Kom or the fountain of Kom 1, and I reckon its distance from Aleppo about 80 miles. I intended to have regulated the distance by counting the camels steps for a number of minutes and measured his step, with which, and knowing the time travelled, I might have been tolerably exact; but this method is rendered useless in a caravan, because the camels feed as they go, and consequently have not that constancy in their pace as is requisite. We passed today without any great fatigue from the heat, and the evening and night was cool, the wind westerly.

11th. Mounted this morning about four, and travelled in a hilly uneven country, but pleasant enough, till ten, when got again upon a plain unbounded almost every way by anything but the horizon. Here we found such a multitude of hares as afforded us good diversion the whole day, and I believe to every one in the caravan a good supper. The manner of taking them is very expeditious, and puss has little chance of escaping, for she can turn no way without meeting a stick, which the Arabs fling so dextrously as seldom to miss their aim; but the flesh of these hares is exceeding disagreeable, which seems to proceed from their food 2; for having frequently of a night when the camels were brought in from feeding a very offensive smell, the Arabs upon enquiry told me it was the breath of these animals and the taste of the hares correspond exactly thereto.

We passed this morning by the ruins of a castle called Gussorah Seveyge 3; the building has been large and the figure square; at present most of the southward is standing, built of stone with turrets at equal distances, but within there appears no remains. We baited about noon about an hour and at six encamped. The day has been warmer than aggreable, tho' the wind continues westerly. Our course about E.S.E. Country level. No water. The evening and night pleasant.

1 Ain el Qom, a famous watering, see p. 140.

2 Hares, in Asia, are often foul feeders.

3 This is Carmichael's Seveyge, Swayeagee, or Sawye-identical with Qusur el Ikhwan of other travellers, a ruined site of some importance. See further, pp. 143-44. Parsons calls it Soor-battlements.

12th. Set out this morning at four; baited an hour at noon, and proceeded till seven. Course and country the same. Hotter than usual. Wind westerly. No water. The evening and night pleasant.

13th. Set out this morning at three and about eleven came to a water they call Geubil Canam l, or the sheep pool, which we found well tasted; but before we could procure any was become very muddy, and is what will always happen unless a person is sent time enough before the caravan to make the necessary provision, which our conductor ought to have done. Here our Arachba friend took his leave and shaped his course for that place about N.E. b[y] N. distance about nine hours 2. No further today. Course and country the same. Wind westerly, and excessive hot, with some blasts almost insupportable. We have not broke our fast the whole day except with drink, which indeed has been our chief sustenance since we left Aleppo; for what with being baked and bruised in that confounded invention the mohoffi, and the tedious tiresome stages we daily undergo, our appetites at night (which is the only time of getting anything drest) are so palled that the little we then eat is merely because we think it necessary; and by what we are already experienced of the desart we may in my opinion conclude that no man who has the least regard for his ease should attempt the passage in this season unless provided with a more commodious carriage, for as to riding so many hours a day exposed to the sun, such is only tolerable to an Arab; and as to the mahoffi, Satan himself would not be able to continue a shape or posture accommodate to so perverse a movement. And therefore, upon the whole, it seems to me that, concerning the passage of the desart compared to the way of Mosul and Bagdat, the latter has much the advantage with regard to refreshments, a pleasant variety of the country and the satisfaction

1 Jubb el Ghanam; see further, p. 146.

2 For the position of Jubb el Ghanam we are still dependent on the rough reckonings of these early travellers, from such distant points as Am el Qom and Abu Kemal. No modern traveller has been there. The wells are probably about 25 miles S.S.W. of Rahba, for which 9 hours is a fair estimate for a camel.

of being accommodated if sickness or other impediments should render proceeding uneasy; and tho' the former for security, avoiding delays and the impertinence of Turkish officers, is greatly preferable and consequently the choice of merchants, yet where interest is not concerned there appears but little reason to determine a meer passenger in favour of the desart; and was I again to choose my way in this journey, it should always be between Bagdat and Bassora by water and between Bagdat and Aleppo either with the desert caravan in a litter, or being in circumstances to afford such a present to the Bashaw as might procure me a safe passage, it should be from town to town upon the banks of Euphrates.

We have observed about this place a vast quantity of christaline tales [talcs], which I imagined would afford a plaister for stuces [stucco?] work infinitely exceeding any other material and might be brought to Aleppo, and thence transported to Scanderoon for embarkation at a small expence. In a journey mentioned in the Mesulinua Curiosa l by some English from Aleppo to Tadmore it is said that between Ain il Kom and Arzoffa 2 there are several quarries of this tale [talc] which they call gypsine [gypsum?] stone or rock isinglass, and say at Arzoffa there is a building entirely thereof. Whether the tale [talc] here mentioned is the same with that the adepts pretend to extract from an oil of such admirable quality I am uncertain, nor have I made the experiments I intended with this curious production, but find it to disagree with the European tale [talc] in a very essential quality, which is the resistance of fire, for this exposed to a common caiinary [culinary?] heat presently falls into an impalpable powder.

1 Miscellanea Curiosa, London, 1708, a small collection of exceedingly miscellaneous tracts in three volumes. Vol. iii is devoted to Travels and Natural History, and contains 'A Relation of a Voyage from Aleppo to PaImyra in Syria, by the Rev. Mr William Halifax.' Also 'An extract of the Journals of two several Voyages of the English Merchants of the Factory at Aleppo to Tadmor.' For reprints of these journeys, see Titles of Works consulted. See also pp. 86-7.

2 Risafe: 33 miles N. of Ain el Qom, the ancient Sergiopolis, and a station on the caravan route from Raqqa to Horns, fully described and illustrated in Musil's Palmyrena, New York, 1928.

14th. Set out this morning about four, and soon after met an Arab messenger from Bassora, with letters for the English nation at Aleppo, having been only ten days 1 upon the desart. We offered him refreshments, but he excused accepting any for the rest of his journey, having only the camel he rode on. At noon we baited an hour as usual; about seven encamped. Course S.E. Little wind from the northward. Country in the afternoon hilly, and the weather very hot, but the night cool.

15th. We are [were?] under way this morning by five and directed our course nearly East, which about ten brought us upon the banks of the Euphrates, where we expected to have been regaled with verdure and those pleasant scenes that generally such copious rivers produce; but here the bounty of nature finds no returns, bestowing a gift which other soil would gratefully manifest, and this incapable even to acknowledge, for since our leaving Aleppo we have not had such a wretched prospect. The river here (if I remember right) is near as broad as the Thames at London and the current brisk. The Arabs dwellings are scattered on each side, and opposite to us is a poor village called Jorsa 2, from whence they brought us sheep, goats, melons and some other provisions, which were welcome refreshments. But as at the same time they afforded us more of their company than was quite convenient, we hastened to leave them, they being it seems hereabout numerous, well armed, and a sort of freebooters, who upon all occasions in their favour are apt to consider that strength and right are synonimous terms. Wherefore, the necessary compliments being past between their Sheik and ours, the former treating with a fatted sheep, and the latter corresponding with a present of greater value, we departed in peace about two this afternoon; and striking into the desart for three hours pursued our usual course

1 This was quick going. The post used to take 14-15 days from Baghdad to Aleppo, and at this rate of travel, viz. io days from Basra to a point near Jubb el Ghanam, the post would reach Aleppo in 13-14 days. See Introduction, p. xxxiv.

2 Carmichael also mentions Jurfa, but I can find no modern equivalent. The locality is that bend of the Euphrates which so many travellers by the desert route sighted, between Abu Kemal and El Qaim. There are several villages on the left or E. bank.

till seven. Today very hot. The country hilly and strong. Scarce any wind, but night cool.

16th. Mounted at four; baited at noon as usual, and proceeded till six in the evening. Course about S.S.E. Little wind. Country for the most part hilly. No water. Day very hot, but the night cool.

17th. Mounted about five; baited about noon, and encamped in the evening at seven. Course and country the same. No water. A northerly wind. The day hot, but the night cool.

18th. Set out this morning at three, and about nine got to a water called Agelat Hawrin 1, where we remained the whole day, and found our situation much warmer than desirable, but the night, as usual, cool. Course, country, wind and weather the same this stage as last.

18th. Mounted at five, and baited at noon; proceeded till four, and arrived at a water called Ain il Ernul 2 or the Hares pool, where we encamped and are only three hours and a half from Cobiesse 3, a poor Arab village. Today we met a messenger from Bassora. Course today S. Little wind and very hot. The country the same, and night cool as usual.

20th. Under way this morning. Directed our course within two points of the East, which brought us about nine to Cobiesse, situated in a grove of date trees, where, however we expected to be otherwise regaled, all that occurred, except dates and a few sheep, is absolutely no refreshment whatever; even water being scarce and (unless brought from the river) not by any but the inhabitants drinkable. Here one third of our caravan separated, being bound to Bagdat, and embarked at a place called Heit on the river Euphrates, about three hours from hence; from which place they are carried down in two or three days, according to the currents, which are governed by the season or the Tygris. The camels they

1 Aqulat or Uglet Hauran: an important watering in the bed of the Wadi Hauran, about iS miles from its entrance into the Euphrates. All caravans watered there; the wells are numerous and the water near the surface. See also p. 152.

2 Ain el Arnab: see also P. 155.

3 Kubaisa: see p. 155.

bring the goods to Heit. But this affair is badly managed, so that, with getting boats sufficient and other impediments, they are commonly five, six, and sometimes more days before the merchants with their goods are fairly embarked. But passengers who have only their baggage are easily accommodated and, as a small imposition of expence is to them of no consideration, they may immediately get boats to Hilla, and from thence may he well provided with others to Bassora; and is the way that I proposed to have taken; but the few journals we have of passing this desart, and those so contradictory, made me resolve to prefer curiosity to ease and proceed throughout by land. This afternoon we left Cobiesse, and at seven encamped; country hilly, very sandy, barren and strong. A hot day, being little wind, and the night not so pleasant as usual.

21st. Set out this morning about four, and baiting an hour at noon proceeded till five, when encamped by a stagnated water, that stunk abominably but seemed not the least offensive to the camels or their masters, who it is certain have the best stomachs and least delicacy, both one and the other, of any men or beast in the universe. When a camel is old or infirm, that he is not able to proceed, they not only butcher him for food but eat thereof, when no carrion can stink worse; as it happened in this journey that they once had some of the said flesh remaining so long as was sufficient to infect the whole caravan. The country today for the most part plain, except here and there a few breaks and elevations; and our situation this evening is not unpleasant, being a good deal of verdure about, the water and the shrubs everywhere thicker than ordinary. Near one of the pools is a small hillock upon which I found two groves [graves?] of some unhappy travellers, with some leather flasks rotted by the sun lying by them. Our course today was about S.S..E. The wind northerly, and tolerably cool.

22nd. Departed about four, and this morning several went out of the road some distance and got a supply of good water. At noon we baited as usual; and proceeding until sunset, encamped in a bottom, where the soil was so sandy and loose

that the tents with difficulty could be pitched. But there was a spring called Ain il Chebeira l, and food for the camels in great plenty, tho' if the water proved no better than the former, we suffered a warm night to little purpose. Our course today was more easterly; the wind yet more northerly; the heat moderate; and the country for the most part plain, very thick of shrubs, and not unpleasant.

23rd. We mounted this morning at five, and in a few hours came by a delightful spring of water excellent in quality and abundant, and where the pleasant verdures invited a longer stay; for we only refreshed our beasts without unloading and proceeded. Some hours after we passed within sight of a village 2 inhabited by professed robbers and from whom the caravan had no security than their sufficiency of strength to attack us. This afternoon we passed near a large fortress of ancient fabrick 3, and the Arabs pretend it was built by the Christians. Encamped at sunset. The country thick covered with shrubs and not unpleasant. The heat moderate. Course about S.S.E., and the night agreeable.

24th. Set out at four and, baiting as usual, finished our days journey about seven in the evening, travelling most of the day upon an ascent, of which in the afternoon we reached the summit, and then descending into a sandy plain encamped. Course and weather much the same.

25th. This morning departed at four, and travelling in a sandy plain till about eleven we encamped eight miles from Meched Ali 4 , a town so called from the meched or mosque said to be the burying ground of Ali, a place of the highest veneration amongst the Persians and all Mahometans of their sect. And the mosque having been lately adorned at a vast

1 Ain el Khabeira is not placed on any modern map, but Beawes' description of the locality, a bottom, with plents, of camel food, makes one suspect that he was in the depression to the S.W. of Rahhaliya and Shithatha. His march of 29 hours from Kubaisa brings him to this point precisely. It is the region where Gertrude Bell discovered ruins the 'whole area is known as Kherab (ruins)'-which she identified as a possible site of Yaqut's 'Ain et Tamr.'

2 Shithatha: of evil repute, see p. 158.

3 Obviously Ukhaidir, and possibly of Lakhmid origin, hence the Arab tradition as to its founders.

4 Meshed Ali, or Najaf.

expense by the present King of Persia, Shack Nadir 1, we resolved not to pass without seeing of it; and therefore after taking some refreshments we joined a party of Arabs and got to the town in about [blank] hours; which we found situated upon a mount of sand and stones, and the country for some miles round it of the same wretched appearance, without the least sign of a vegetable to be seen; nor can anything more miserable or forlorn be conceived than this place in every respect appears. The town is small and surrounded with a low wall of unhewn stone and mortar, of which fabrick there is also at a little distance two fortresses, the one large and seemingly strong. The houses, if such they may be called, look more like heaps of rubbish than dwellings, and the inhabitants more despicable than anything mentioned. As soon as we entered the town a swarm of rabble encompassed us and with rude shouts and worse railleries and such like welcomes accompanied us to a place where coffee was and near the outward gate of the mosque, which they permitted us to view 2. This famous building stands in a spacious court, the form being much like that of the other mosques save that the dome is differently shaped, swelling at bottom and rising to a point like a mitre; on the top are fixed two large glories [i.e. haloes] or suns, cutting each other at right angles. This mosque has also minoretts on each side, which are curiously wrought, and as well these as the whole fabrick are intirely covered with plates of copper thickly gilt and very neatly laid on 3, and all the doors, windows, galleries &c.,

1 Nadir Shah, who had just gained a decisive victory over the Turks and who at that particular moment may himself have been somewhere in the vicinity. The campaigns in central Iraq were drawing to a close, Turk and Persian were entering on a series of diplomatic discussions, a principal point of which was the ownership of the Holy Cities Karbala and Najaf, the Persian Shias naturally claiming the tomb of their saint Ali. Nadir Shah had been on pilgrimage to Najaf a year or two before. Two years later he was assassinated.

2 Beawes was lucky in the time of his visit. The Shia shrine was enjoying a brief period of Shia occupation, and no doubt its intolerant temper was calmed. Most travellers avoided Meshed Ali, as a hot-bed of fanaticism; Griffith, alone of our travellers, besides Beawes, entered it, and nearly lost his life in consequence.

3 Niebuhr describes the famous dome; op. cit. PP. 210 et seq.

beautifully decorated with fret work, azure borders with inscriptions of gold ideas after the Eastern manner; making together, it is most certain, a grand appearance and must have cost an infinite sum; but yet the outside we were assured bears scarce any proportion to the beauty and riches within, where particularly the tomb of Ali is adorned with jewels of infinite value and works of immense cost. However, we were also told by some that the jewels adorning the inside of the mosque were far from being all real, for many were fictitious, not only by appointment, but also the roguery of some who have found means to make an exchange to their advantage. And what seems somewhat surprising is the conduct of the Turks with regard to this place, who, tho' at war with Persia and always abominating that sect, have nevertheless thro' fear or superstition hitherto refrained from any attempt on this unguarded deposit of riches.

The King of Persia has here a Chan, as well in reverence to the holy place as to inspect the work, which is not as yet finished 1; the outward gate being a very mean entrance, and the wall surrounding the court is at present only rough stones and mortar, which makes a sorry appearance; but the design is that the whole shall be finally compleat, and no great space of time will be necessary thereto, unless it be to finish the pavement of the court, which, by what already appears, will be exceeding curious, and when the design is entirely effected, the most exquisite and lasting monument of devotion and grandeur the rebel monarch could possibly leave to the followers of Ali in particular and the Mahometan world in general.

From the gate of the mosque and with the same company we were carried to a house, where our conductor informed us we must remain till next morning; and tho' we signified no small discontent at his insisting thereon, it was all to no purpose. The country, he said, was full of robbers, and going from the town to the caravan without strong company endangered us to be robbed and even murdered, and that no

1 It was Nadir Shah's policy to embellish the Tomb of Ali: see Niebuhr, op. cif. P. 210.

such security could be procured till next day. So, spreading a carpet upon a small terras, we passed the evening as patiently as so uncomfortable a situation could admit, being excessive hot and we had brought no refreshments of water or liquor from the caravan; but we got a supply for our future journey of mutton, fowls, very good leban with a few melons, pomgranates &c.; all which and what little else the place affords, even water, is brought from the rivers wide [side?], distant from them, they told us, about four hours.

From hence, it seems, when the medicum [medium, i.e. air] is clear of dust, may be seen the ruins of an ancient Couffa l, and not far off is also the tomb of the Prophet Ezekiel 2, believed to be such by the Jews, who are at some expense in expression of their veneration for it.

The Persian Chan this evening complimented us by a messenger with enquiries concerning our welfare and tenders of service, to which we returned the necessary compliments, and desired his order for safely viewing the inside of the mosque; but his Excellency vouchsafed us no answer, nor did so impertinent a request deserve his attention.

As an instance of the Arabian hospitality to strangers remaining yet an indispensable duty amongst them, I cannot omit mentioning that from the moment we entered the house in Meched Ali till that of our departure, a venerable old Arab (who by the respect paid him appeared a principal man) accompanied us and expressed by an interpreter great concern we could not discourse together, desired we would consider him as our servant come to do us all the good offices in his power, and to these expressions were joined an invitation almost every instant to either fruit or something else before us.

26th. This morning about eight we had the pleasure to leave the most wretched place and seemingly miserable people in the universe, and got in a few hours to our caravan. Today the heat was very fatiguing, but the night so cool that

1 Kufa: 7 miles away to the N.E.

2 The reputed Tomb of Ezekiel is at Kifi, 17 miles to the N.N.E. See Niebuhr, op. cit. p. 16.

a quilt double was scarce sufficient to keep me warm. And the night before within the town was excessive hot. Towards the morning our quarters were alarmed by the approach of some straggling Arabs, which is common in the night, wherever the caravan is pitched, and tho' a very regular and careful watch is constantly observed the rogues do sometimes find their account in these visits. But fear oftener occasions these alarms than any real danger, and that of a Jew merchant on this occasion made me laugh very heartily, who, instead of betaking himself to his, arms, fell into a vehement expostulation with God Almighty; for, first crying to Him very loud for His assistance, he told Him there was thieves a-coming to despoil His chosen people, and will you, says he, suffer it after so many instances of care for preservation? No, no, that can't be; we know, Lord, our merchandise is very safe under Thy protection, but hasten to help us or all is lost; and so he proceeded louder and louder whilst the alarm continued, and then with a dozen hearty curses, and brandy sufficient to compose him, the noise of his agonies ceased. And talking with this Jew afterwards, the rascal denied that any fear was concerned in his lamentations, but a meer compliance with his duty on such occasions, and adding that he himself had several times made a caravan from Bagdat to Aleppo which had not consisted of above thirty loads, which, says he, may demonstrate that my fears are not extraordinary. But to me it seems that rather the dangers of the desart are not so considerable as commonly imagined, for these people in general we know full well are far from remarkable in exposing either their persons or fortunes.

This man acquainted me that the best way for a merchant to transport his goods, supposing it don't suit him to wait at Bassora for a general caravan, is sending by the river to Bagdat, which may be done in about thirty days, and his person and baggage in ten or twelve; from whence he proceeds to Cobiesse, and then very safely to Aleppo by the same road that we came. But however easy such a transportation of merchandise may be to one of the country, I am persuaded that a stranger to the language, likewise the custom and

manner of conducting such undertaking would experience insurmountable difficulties, and [as?] to procuring a person capable of acting for him, the risk of imposition would thereby become greater. Wherefore, as to myself, if I had merchandise to transport from either place to the other, they should always go by the general caravan, and would personally proceed as before mentioned.

The country from Cobiesse to this place we have found in general much pleasanter than before; a greater plenty of water, and the ground covered thicker with shrubs, of which latter there is upon some spots great variety, and from some I gathered seeds, two whereof are particularly curious and worth travellers notice, the one a kind of thistle and most beautiful plant imaginable, the other a sort of gourd resembling a small water melon 1, and smells when cut exactly the same, but the taste extremely bitter, and the Arabs say is infallible for curing the flux.

27th. We remained here all the morning, and then mounted. Our course about S.E. Little wind and hot. The country very barren. We encamped at sunset. The night very hot.

28th. Set out about four, and at noon came where upon a rising was a tower, seemingly the remains of a larger building designed for defence 2. Here we baited and proceeded on our journey till sunset. Course today much the same. A fresh northerly breeze, and heat not very fatiguing. The country uneven, sandy and full of loose stones; and what is very particular, these stones, which lie very thick on the ground, are for some miles all of a colour, then for some miles all of another; and those I observed were one sort very black, another sort iron colour, and others of a deep orange colour, all of which are extremely ponderous and hard. In other places these stones are all white, and upon some spots

1 The 'colocynth' gourd (Citrullus colocynthus Tristram), exclusively confined to the most and deserts, and growing best in Painless years. The pulp, when dried, forms a powder-a drastic and efficient purge. Doughty says that 'little indeed and even the leaf is a most vehement purgative; they say it will leave a man half dead,' but the goat, the ass, the porcupine, will eat greedily of it.

2 I cannot identify this, but it was probably Qasr Ruhaima.

are most of them chrystaline and sometimes gathered for cutting into ornaments. I picked up some, and amongst them one about the bigness of a pigeons egg which a jeweller in Bengal 1 assured me was harder than any pebble he had ever seen.

We saw today smoke at a distance ascending in several places, which they told us was from habitations on the river side, and this day the dome of Meched Ali was yet in sight, which appeared on the hill like a globe of fire 2.

29th. Departed at five. Course somewhat to eastward of S.E. Country and wind much the same. At noon baited as customary, and finished our days journey about sunset. Found pits of bad water today twice, and passed the night indifferently well.

30th. Mounted this morning at five, and in our way discovered an empty camel, which many of the Arabs immediately pursued with the utmost speed, being wholly the property of him who first reaches the prize. We baited at noon near some pits of very bad water, and ended our stage about six. The days course more easterly than usual. The country more level, and somewhat more better provided with food for the camels. Wind northerly and excessive hot, but the night more temperate.

31st. Set out this morning at four and baiting as usual ended our stage in the evening. Wind, weather and country near the same. Our situation here was near the ruins of a large fortress 3, and the water better tasted than any we had for many days past. And is what we have experienced at all such places in the desart, that the water is there better and in greater plenty than ordinary elsewhere; which occasions me to imagine that the fortified structures were either erected and maintained by merchants whose commerce required their passing that way to secure themselves water, as without such certainty the journey would be impracticable, or else by the Arabs of the desart in their defence against each other,

1 For 'in' read 'of,' for the account was written at Basra.

2 See p. 167.

3 Probably Rahba [Rahaba].

or (which I think most likely) in order to extort from travellers an acknowledgment for being supplied; which appears yet more probable, as the pits of water now found so frequently throughout the journey are certainly of much later date than the above mentioned buildings, and sometimes a very little way from them, and it may therefore be well supposed were dug to avoid the difficulty or expence of being otherwise supplied; and which remedying the evil those fabricks lost the benefit and consequently went to decay.

Sept. 1st. We got under way at four, and travelling through hills of sand till ten we encamped in the midst of several [severe?] and continued roasting till noon, when we proceeded thro' the like country till five, and rested. Little wind today and excessive hot. Course much the same. About eight this evening we again loaded and travelled till midnight. No want of water.

Sept. 2nd. Mounted at five, and baiting at noon ended our days stage before five. Course the same. Country level, but sandy and bare. The weather very hot, and we have had the whole day a strong N.E. wind, which raised such thick clouds of fine sand as almost blinded and suffocated us. The air was so charged with dust that the guides could hardly perceive the way, and the sun was as red as scarlet; which together with the melancholy of the desart, and the fatigue both men and beasts appeared to labour under, I thought exhibited the saddest scene imaginable. We saw this afternoon at a distance a pyramidical structure and the ruins of other buildings; which the Arabs gave us to understand was formerly a place of no small account'.

This evening Sey'd Mahmud, the principal Shaik of the Arabs, paid us a visit, which he told us was to enquire if we had passed the journey with satisfaction, whether any of the

1 He does not say on which hand, but caravans usually viewed to the westward the first fortified stations on the Darb Zobeida-such as the Minarat el Qurun; see p. 169. But if it were to the east of his route it might have been the same as Taylor's 'Spire marking the watering of Eyn-el-Gyan,' i.e. Qaim, 9 miles W. of Shinafiya. At the moment Beawes' position must have been somewhere between the two landmarks.

Arabs had presumed to offer us any offensive language, or otherwise disgust us, and particularly if our conductor had complied with his obligation, being sensible of the hospitable regard that is due to strangers, and had himself been watchful of our welfare; to which fine speech we answered that nothing had been amiss and expressed ourselves infinitely obliged for the attention and care his example had procured us from the Arabs. But the good Shaick seemed little pleased at the bare exchange of compliments, and manifested that he expected a more substantial acknowledgment; which being told us by Hodgee Saluk, we replied, as to demands we were subject to none, and if a present only was meant, that such depended on our generosity, which we should not submit to any regulation but our own will and pleasure; tho' herein we were deceived, as hereafter will appear.

I enquired upon this occasion of the Shaick (who is a noted desart traveller) concerning the different routes, who informed me that from Bassora to Aleppo there are three different, the one of which they don't touch either at Meched Ali or Cobiesse but strike more exactly across', which makes the journey some days shorter, he himself having performed it in 25 2 days; but in the dry season water is there scarce and at all times the common way or tract is what we came, unless any impediments to or from the desart tribes, or otherwise, obliges them to alter their course. As to the ways upon the rivers side, where towns are frequent and consequently good water and other refreshments are never wanting, this agreeable route he said was impracticable, the imposition of the Turks and other inhabitants along the banks, both to the merchant and cameleer, would be insupportable. The other route of the desart for caravans is that from Damascus to Bagdat or Bassora 3, exclusive of that which goes yearly and

1 The track usually followed by native riders and such travellers who went with their own outfit, unattached to a caravan, such as Chesney in 1837. Niebuhr records an even more direct route; see Voyage en Arabie, etc., 1780, vol. ii, p. 194.

2 Plaisted spent only 24 days actual travelling.

3 We have no record of caravans passing direct between Damascus and Baghdad. We only know of the Desert Post between the two centres, which was kept up until early in the twentieth century.

precisely from Aleppo to Mecha, which is more properly the holy pilgrimage of Damascus, as these of Aleppo and other parts of the Turks are obliged to meet there and prosecute jointly the performance of the said duty.

As to the desart tribes their tracts throughout the waste and into both the other Arabias, the Happy and the Stony, are innumerable.

I enquired further after the camels, of whose abiding so long without food such strange reports are common, and was informed that they suck between two and three years and arrive at full strength at seven, continuing vigorous according to the labour they endure, but generally till thirty; and as to their enduring the want of food, they say that if for experiment only it should be tried how long they would live without sustenance, it might he found that their strength therein is superior many days to any other animal, but far short of thirty odd, days as commonly believed; and as to ordinary observations amongst the Arabs, it is certain that a loaded camel having passed three days without food complains grievously; the fourth day he will trip frequently, and the fifth is not able to proceed, nor will he hold out so long without absolutely anything. But what renders these animals seemingly adapted for the desart by Providence, and may have given rise to fables concerning them, is that upon desart journeys nothing is provided for their subsistence, and moreover whatever they meet, even the dryest brush, is food for them, and having dry food, tho' of such sort, they will endure many days that want of water, and finally having water they will march a long time with very little food'.

We proceeded again this evening till midnight, which manner of travelling we find very fatiguing, and am surprised the Arabs themselves can endure it; but they are certainly in many respects so very like their camels, that Providence seems to have equally designed them for the desart. I have observed them to walk and work all day, watch at night, and

1 Camels can go without water for long periods, but not without food, nor is there any reason so to drive the 'cattle' on empty bellies, for the desert is seldom without camel food of sorts.

repeat their labour next day without any sign of fatigue, and have likewise remarked that, like unto their beasts, when food and water have been plenty their chops were never still, but can in proportion to their strength go as long without either.

We saw tonight two or three scorpions very large and black, which are the worst sort and their stings are dangerous; but this is the only time throughout the journey that any have appeared, nor have we seen a snake but once, tho' said to be common. As to the other animals we found only hares (which in some places are plenty) and lately a small creature called a jabous 1, whose body, size, and shape is most like a ground rat, but the head rounder and eyes very large and protuberant. The tail is long and has a bush at the end; but the greatest singularity of this animal is his legs, the fore ones not exceeding two inches and those behind are above eight, which enables him to proceed forward with incredible celerity.

Sept. 3rd. We mounted this morning early, and a few hours after passed by a tribe of Arabs under their tents, which occasioned our caravan to travel close and with their arms in readiness, being, as they told us, necessary, tho' the others were professedly friends. These wanderers of the desart remain sometimes on or near one spot for a whole season, and these cultivate gourds, cucumbers and such like vegetables; and the remains of these miserable plantations we met with three or four times in our journey.

We baited about noon, and proceeded till five. Course more easterly. The country level, sandy and bare. The wind blowing strong at N.W. was equally troublesome as before mentioned, and in so much that I declare for my own part I had much rather undergo again the whole fatigue we otherwise endured in the passage than such another day; but with the setting of the sun the wind abated and we passed the evening tolerably well till about nine, when we again loaded and travelled four hours farther.

1 Yaculus Loftusi is the common jerboa of the region, but the large five-toed Alactaga is also found in the Syrian Desert towards Palmyra.

Sept. 4th. Set out at five and in a few hours came to a village 1, where we rested some time and then proceeded. Arrived in the afternoon at another called lzbiz 2, two hours and a half from Bassora. We had all day the same N.W. wind and equally troublesome. Here the caravan remained, and the merchants are not allowed to remove their effects till all demands from the Shaiks &c. are satisfied, which commonly requires some days; and we were not suffered to carry with us to Bassora the least part of our baggage, because we refused to pay the dues for our loads as if they were merchandise, which now they insist shall be considered upon the same footing, but we resolving to maintain the contrary left our things to the servants care, and having horses sent us by the English chief at Bassora, Thos. Dorrell Esqr., we mounted and arrived there in the evening, where that gentleman was pleased to receive us with the utmost civility and a hearty welcome.

The passage from Meched Ali to this place is in all respects the worst part of all the journey; the country exceeding bare and sandy; the weather hotter and water tho' frequent very brackish, and foul in most places, which often disorder our bowels and occasion severe sickness of the stomach.

According to the foregoing journal the direct course from [Aleppo?] should be about [blank], and the distance I reckon as follows, viz.:

From Aleppo to Ain il Kom, about 80 miles.

From thence to where we saw [the] river, about 90

From that place to Cobiesse, about 85

From thence to Meched Ali, about 110

From thence to Bassora, about 180

But this account is far from pretending to exactness; for as to the course, the irregular march of the caravan does not admit thereof, and the best means I had to judge of the distance was remarking the camels pace and their continual traverses, as food &c. inclined them, from whence I make

1 Probably Kuwaibda.

2. Zubair.

account that in twelve hours travelling we proceed on our way about 20 English miles, and having travelled 327 hours the amount of distance will be as aforesaid 545 miles 1.

The pretensions before mentioned of the Arabs relating to our baggage we at last complied with, not only to avoid troubling the Government with trifles and most likely to no purpose, but also in attention to their plea of having made it their constant study throughout the journey to merit our favour; that [we] were answerable for the desart duties upon every freighted camel without regard to the quality of the load, and that finally we were witnesses how very hard what came to them was earned; and so we paid fifty odd dollars, besides some presents, which rendered them entirely satisfied and thankful. And having here particularly enquired concerning this matter, was informed by some that the demand had been contrary to custom, which exempted whatever was not merchandise from the common fees, and that only a small present was usual; but others declared the contrary and that the Arabs had rather been favourable in their demands than otherwise. However any dispute of this sort may easily be excused by adjusting the affair before the journey, I mean such who have many loads to transport; for as to a mean traveller, the difference can hardly ever be worth disputing, and as it is certain the Arabs are far from exorbitant in their demands or difficult to satisfy, it seems becoming every traveller, as well in gratitude for his own treatment as attention to the welfare of those that follow, to render by ample gratification the hospitable behaviour of the Arabs to strangers as agreeable to their interest as their duty.

We found no English vessels here or any other but a Dutch ship from Batavia, nor have the caravans such regard to the seasons of shipping as I imagined, being here informed their setting out is far from depending upon the will of the merchants, but entirely upon the pleasure of the Bashaw of Bagdat and the agreement of the principal tribes of Arabs; who having adjusted the desart fees and the number of their

1 Beawes underestimated the distance; it is actually about 780 miles by his route between Aleppo and Basra.

respective people that shall be employed, they nominate each Shaick who governs the caravan to collect them; which manner of conducting the affair renders this road to Aleppo commonly more secure than any other, tho' not so safe, however, as to make unnecessary their going well provided with arms and ammunition, it being impossible to adjust with all the wanderers of the desart; nor do they think it worth while. But altho' the lesser tribes are generally awed by the greater, yet opposition sometimes happens, and whole caravans are plundered, as was the last year's [caravan] from Damascus to Bagdat; and such disasters may occur from either unforeseen difference, secret malice amongst the Arab tribes themselves, or the revenge of some particular tribe for injuries received from the Turks, which not long since provoked them to draw such a force upon this place as was expected would have sacked the town; and now lately the Bashaw's troops have so unmercifully dealt with these people that almost any revenge would be excusable.

There are two sorts of caravans that go from hence to Aleppo, the one consisting of camels only for sale and the other for merchandise, the former yearly, and generally constant with respect to time', whose permission is easily obtained, and tho' their carrying goods is prohibited, they so manage as never to go without. As to the latter, their setting out is not so certain, having difficulties to encounter, nor are they confined to any time, but merchants solicit license as occasions occur, and who now offer the Bashaw to pay him for permission the whole sum his duties would amount to, if they went by the way of Bagdat and Mosul, but are refused shipping bound from hence directly to Bengall or the coast of Cormandel. The utmost they ought to remain is July, least they should be retarded in their passage and not get round Ceylon before the N. W. monsoon; and if they have business at Surat they should be gone from hence in February at farthest, as lying in Surat Road becomes dangerous after the month of April. Wherefore a traveller bound to the farthest side of India ought to be here in

1 Plaisted says mid-April to mid-June. Eliot says May or June.

December; he may be sure of his passage in a Bengall or Madras ship, or else to Bombay or Surat, and there find occasions enough to pursue his voyage.

The violent heats common to this place in summer are now upon decline, tho' still very uneasy and especially the night, which often reminds us how much better we passed them in the desart. The wind that brings extraordinary heat to this place is that they call Sherigi 1 or Southerly, and the cool refreshing wind Shimal 2 or Northwesterly wind; but of this latter are nevertheless those pernicious blasts or gusts in Arab Semeil 3, which begin in July and last 40 days, the danger whereof is well known about Bagdat and also in other places, but here it seems they never reach, nor to any part of the desart, because, they' sav, the river runs between, which as they pass entirely prevents their mischief, and that being upon the water is a certain security against them, tho' going a very little way from it on that side from whence they blow is attended with risque. Concerning which and how fatal these blasts are frequently to travellers, a Bagdat merchant assured me with instances to which he was an eyewitness. One whereof was, being upon the river in the season a Jew of the company, contrary to the persuasions of his fellow travellers, who repeatedly cautioned him of the hazard, walked up a small distance from the banks and in less than half an hour was brought back suffocated. The other instance he mentioned was a caravan that set out from Bagdat for Mosul in this perillous season of the year, of which in one day above one third were destroyed. These winds, he told me, seldom did any harm within the said city, because of the water about it, but few care to venture out that are able by remaining within to avoid the danger.

The Arabs it seems are not so apprehensive of those blasts, pretending, as I am assured, to perceive the approaching evil in time to guard against it by falling flat on their faces and covering close till the danger is past; and

1 Sharqi: the south wind.

2 Shimal: the north wind.

3 Semail. Parsons gives a good description of this hot wind; op. cit. P. 93.

having enquired by what appearance [it] is given notice of, I find they pretend that bluish streams are seen in the air at some distance advancing, which always they say accompany the Semeil and are what infallibly suffocates, unless by the precaution mentioned they can be avoided; but if this was true, methinks the hint would be equally perceptible to others as the Arabs, and the pretended means of security as easily practised. However, their account is not altogether unnatural, for that sulpher does the mischief is highly probable and that the whole Semeil is not charged, from some in a company being destroyed thereby, whilst others remain unhurt; but that such sulpher is so apparent in bluish streams as-to be a timely notice for providing against, or that any other hints precede the mischief so as to render it evitable, I am not inclinable to believe, at least that such previous notices are constant, for in such case the Semeil wind would be little more dangerous than any other, which is contradicted by the fatal accidents that have frequently happened to travellers, who, exposing themselves in such a season, can hardly be supposed to have suffered by either their ignorance or negligence of what so nearly concern their welfare; and as to their falling to the ground and covering when the danger arrives, it seems a good expedient, because a man may escape the first attack, and yet perish by longer continuing exposed.

The description of Bassora and the remark occuring to me during my residence are elsewhere mentioned, wherefore, notwithstanding that paper has many uses and consequently the greater quality [quantity?] I presented my friends might be most esteemed, yet I beg leave to omit the repetition and should here conclude; but considering the universal weakness of a traveller is caring to manifest a peculiar capacity for judging of men and things, and the world Commonly good natured enough to indulge them therein, I think myself obliged to behave in character, and ere I finish, express a due share of folly by making some remarks upon my fellow land leapers [adventurers or vagabonds], with whom I had occasion to be so long acquainted.

And first, their hospitality, with all imaginable care for

our welfare, a due respect in behaviour, a chearful readiness on all occasions to assist our servants, and lastly a faithful care of our baggage may be deemed as such. We have certainly the utmost reason to acknowledge that this virtue is possessed by the Arabs in the highest degree, and tho' it should be objected that what is here mentioned, their interest and fears might engage them to perform, and not any real attention to the rectitude and seemingly such a conduct, the supposition may be allowed without any deviation from the above character; for who is ignorant that in every other part of the world as the desarts of Arabia, fear is a natural curb to insolence and interest the common motive of respect? But yet there is [such?] a thing as hospitality, and infinitely more in my opinion amongst the Arabs than much politer people. And moreover it appears to me that whatever civility and security is to be purchased by strangers at the current price and an easy rate, such people should be esteemed hospitable and worthy the greatest commendation and particularly as the country [contrary?] is so often experienced and even without leaving Europe.

The Arabs are of Mahometans the most superstitious, exceeding greatly in formality and especially the punctual compliance with the set time of prayer, and almost incessant calling upon God and their Prophet; which being according to general observations a common practice with the worst of men, there is little reason doubtless to imagine such behaviour of the Arabs any indication of their probity; but considering that neither is excess in devotion an infallible token for deceit, and also the small share of knowledge acquirable by these people, I think their behaviour herein may be imputed to simplicity than, as by some, entirely hypocrisy.

These Arabs of the desart are particularly strict in abstaining from all intoxicating liquors; which whether a virtue or a weakness I leave to the judgment of others, but am certain every Christian traveller this way will note the forbearance, as thereby their stores of that sort are always secure. To this laudable scruple of the Arabs may also in

some measure be attributed the grave and ceremonious regard that is observed amongst them, and exceeding few squabbles that happen, for they seem to be naturally a timorous people and more inclined to secret revenge than publick resentment. Yet if carousing was practised as elsewhere, we may reasonably suppose that rude, contentious, and noisy wranglings would be equally the effects; which I believe but rarely occurs, because I do not remember any in the whole journey. These people endure hardships with the least apparent concern or manifestation of fatigue of any perhaps in the universe; they are no more sensible of heat than if they were natives of the sun, and breathe the dusty medium free as the purest air; the forlorn waste that strikes a melancholy upon the minds of others affords to them delight beyond the gayest scenes, and it is certain that in all respects the Divine goodness seems in pity to have adapted their minds and bodies seemingly to their situation, as what appears to any besides a wretched condition is enjoyed by them with satisfaction.

They are excessively fond of money, and it may reasonably be supposed have great sums amongst them, their income being considerable from the produce particularly of camels and dates about Bassora; of which former came last year for sale to Aleppo eleven thousand, and of the latter, besides home and inland consumption, a considerable number of embarkation [sic] are yearly loaded therewith. And moreover their cattle and labour are no small articles of profit, and except by the extortions of the Turks, but little of these gains is returned. For as to apparel, the poor are content with a coarse manufactory of their own, and the richer are far from being extravagant, either in dress or any other ornament; and for food they are beholden to none but Providence and their industry, their delicacies being few, and what we deem luxury is in any shape a stranger to the desart inhabitants of the borders; whereof [wherefore?] with what view or whence proceeds so anxious a desire in them for wealth seems hard to determine, but we are to consider that the Arabs, like other people, covet ease and security, and moreover are fond of power and rising above the multitude, nothing of which

is attainable without money. Nor are the distinguishing characters amongst them seemingly more than those of holy, rich and powerful, so that no wonder if those people in general express a greater eagerness in the pursuit of riches than those who abound in variety of characters to illustrate the desired superiority and that are procurable by species of merit, industry, policy and address, neither known nor practicable by the Arabs.

The greatest unhappiness of the Arabians immediately under the Ottoman tyranny is their disagreement amongst themselves; for were they united, such union would not only secure them from the insults of the Turks (with whom some or other are continually at variance), but render them a powerful people, and having the desart for a retreat might cultivate the borders, and vend their camels, cattle &c., exempt from the extortion and impositions they are now continually exposed to; for should any force be then too hard for them, their retreat might defy the Turks following them, and when safe, to come back might convince their enemies, by ravaging in turn, that to be agressors was neither politick nor profitable; whereas at present the Turks have not only reduced the wretches within their reach to the utmost misery, but constantly play the different tribes and petty bodies one against another to their utter destruction, who are nevertheless so infatuated as to be at continual variance amongst themselves, perpetually plundering and harrassing one another, and even value themselves alternately upon the common enemy to dispose and constitute a Shaick or ruler, whenever the discontended parties have not sufficient strength of their own.

But concerning this matter, I shall not presume to add. The Arabian politician is burlesque distinction [sic], I should unwillingly incur, nor am more desirous that the few particulars I have mentioned of the Arabs should be deemed an attempt to draw the character of a people from a months acquaintance, being sensible that such is ridiculous, and that men of infinitely superior discernment and experience have long since described the Arabs at large. But as by some

means [sic] those descriptions where almost every inhumanity is laid to their charge, a traveller may to his disadvantage be deterred from passing the desart, or executes the journey with unnecessary suspicions and consequently uneasiness, I have thought it not amiss to declare the foregoing, and in gratitude to witness that, however barbarous the real character of these people may be or have been discovered from better occasions of knowing them, a man may travel a great way in their company without one instance to confirm it.

As the expences of this journey may be to some useful, I have hereunto annexed the account 1, and which concludes a journal as barren, I am sensible, of anything entertaining as the way it describes. But this is universally known so very common to such performances that I should be particularly impertinent to offer at apologizing for a defect which much the greater part of our voyaging fraternity consider as foreign to their obligations, wherefore shall only say that the foregoing relation is according to a general rule, and however incorrect, confide will be accepted as an expression of thankfulness for the many favours bestowed on me by the English gentlemen at Aleppo, to whom it is humbly presented, and I particularly desire may be acceptable.

Bassora, 2nd December 1745.

WILLIAM BEAWES.

1 Not in the India Office copy.

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