Si-Yu-Ki

Or, Buddhist Records of the Western Countries

written by Hsien-tsang

circa 650 AD

Taken from Translations by Thomas Watters (1904) and Samuel Beal (1884)



These records were composed by a man who, in English tradition, has had many names. Yuan Chwang and Hiouen Thsang and Huan Chwang and Hiuen Tsiang, not to mention Hsuan Chwang, Yuan Chuang, and Hhuen Kwan; his name has been spelt in all these ways, on various translations and elsewhere. He lived in China in the seventh century, was born and raised a Confucian, but converted to Buddhism and became a celebrated Buddhist scholar at an early age. After his death, his adventures would form the inspiration for books and plays, prints and paintings, and (much, much later) even movies.

In his era, China was isolated from India and all the homelands of Buddhist tradition; this was a grief to Chinese Buddhists, who had no direct contact with the heartland of their religion, the land where the Buddha himself had lived and taught. The shrines of India were unreachable. There were Chinese translations of the faith's sacred books, but these translations were not satisfactory. Previous pilgrims had visited India and returned: Fa-hien and Sung Yun had traveled there, and left records of their journeys.

In the year 626 AD, Hsien-tsang too set out for India.

He returned sixteen years later.









Introduction

(The authorship of the Introduction is disputed.

It may be by Hsien-tsang, or by any of several others.

The translation, though, is largely from Thomas Watter's version.)



<The Introduction begins with a panegyric in praise of the Emperor. It continues with a short summary of Buddhist teachings about the nature of the world:>

Now the Saha world, the Three Thousand Great Chiliocosm, is the sphere of the spiritual influence of one Buddha. It is in the four continents <literally, 'under heaven'> now illuminated by one sun and moon and within the Three Thousand Great Chiliocosm that the Buddhas, the World-honored Ones, produce their spiritual effects, are visibly born and visibly enter Nirvana, teach the way to saint and sinner.

In the ocean, resting on a gold disk, is the mountain Sumeru composed of four precious substances: along its middle the sun and moon revolve and on it the Devas sojourn.

Around the Sumeru mountain are seven mountains and seven seas and the water of the seas between the mountains has the "eight virtues": outside the seven Gold Mountains is the Salt Sea. In the sea there are, speaking summarily, four habitable Islands, viz P'i-t'i-ha Island in the east, Chan-pu Island in the south, Ku-t'o-ni in the west, and Kou-lo Island in the north. The influence of a Gold-wheel king extends over these four islands, a Silver-wheel king rules over all except the north one, a Copper-wheel king rules over the South and East islands, and an Iron-wheel king bears sway only over Chan-pu Island. When a "Wheel-king" is about to arise a gold, silver, copper, or iron wheel, according to the Karma of the man, appears for him in the air and gives him his title while indicating the extent of his dominions.

In the center of Chan-pu Island (Jambuvipa), south of the Perfume Mountain and north of the Great Snow Mountain is the A-na-p'o-ta-to (Anavatapta) Lake above 800 li in circuit. Its banks are adorned with gold, silver, lapis-lazuli, and crystal: all its sand are golden and it is pure and clear. The p'usa Ta-ti (Great Land) having by the force of his prayer become a dragon-king lives in the depths of the Lake and sends forth its pure cold water for Jambudvipa. Thus from the silver east side through the Ox Mouth flows the Ganges which after going once round the Lake flows into the south-east sea: from its gold south side through the Elephant Mouth flows the Sin-tu (Indus) which after flowing round the Lake enters the south-west sea: from the lapis-lazuli west side through the Horse Mouth the Fo-chu (Oxus) flows passing round the Lake and then on into the north-west sea: from the crystal north side through the Lion Mouth flows the Si-to (Sita) river which goes round the Lake and then on to the north-east sea. Another theory is that the Sita flows underground until it emerges at the Chi-shih ("Heaped up stones") Mountain and that it is the source of the River of China (the Yellow River).

<Note: the idea of the world-mandala is very old. In this map, the world's lynchpin is the celestial Mount Sumeru or Meru, at whose feet lies the celestial lake from which springs four encircling rivers, and around this still center lie encircling continents, encircling oceans. No earthly mountain can be pointed to as Mount Sumeru, which reaches heaven itself; nor can Anavatapta Lake (literally, "Unheated Lake") be found. The dragon or naga inhabiting Anavatapta Lake was also named Anavatapta, according to various traditions; he was so called because he was exempt from the fiery heat, the violent storms, and the fear of the garuda-birds which plagued other dragons. Hsien-tsang's version lists four rivers. Their true names can be guessed at, by those who like guessing games. The text may be translated in alternate ways, and the following is in accord with the Samuel Beal version of 1884: From the east falls the Ganges, through the mouth of a silver ox. From the south flows the Sin-to, through a golden elephant's mouth (this is identified as the Indus, the river which flows through the Sindh region of India). From the west flows the Fo-chu out of the mouth of a horse of lapis-lazuli (perhaps the Oxus or Amu-darya, on whose shores were lapis mines of old). Lastly, from the north flows the Si-to, through the mouth of a crystal lion. The Si-to could be the Yarkand river; it could be the Syr-darya or Jaxartes; it could be the Silis of the ancients, or the Side river mentioned by Ktesias, or a river Sila north of Meru mentioned in the Mahabharata, or the river Silas written of by Megasthenes. The Side and Silas seem both to have been 'weak water', so subtle that the feather of a peacock could not float on it--unable to support even the weight of a feather dropped into the current. The name may derive from Pali siditi, from root sad 'to sink'; according to some Chinese legends, the Yellow River's source is in a river of 'weak water' flowing from the foot of the Kwun-lun Mountain.>

At times when there is no paramount Wheel-monarch, four lords divide Jambudvipa. In the south is the Elephant-Lord whose territory has a hot moist climate with people energetic, devoted to study and addicted to magical arts, wearing garments which cross the body and leave the right shoulder bare: their hair is made into a topknot in the middle and hangs down on the sides: they associate in towns and live in houses of several storeys. In the west is the Lord of Precious Substances who rules over the sea abounding in pearls, whose subjects are rude and covetous, wear short coats fastened to the left, cut their hair short and have long mustachios; they live in towns also and are traders. The Horse-Lord rules in the north: his country is very cold, yielding horses, and with inhabitants of a wild fierce nature who commit murder without remorse; they live in felt tents and are migratory herdsmen. In the East (that is, in China) is the Man-Lord, who has a well-peopled territory with a genial climate where all good manners and social virtues prevail, and the people are attached to the soil.

Of these four territories it is only the East country that holds the south direction in respect, the other three regions making the east their quarter of reverence. The East country excels all other regions in its political organization. The system of religion which teaches purification of the heart and release from the bonds <of folly> and which instructs how to escape from birth and death flourishes in the country of the Elephant-Lord (India).

<Or, from the Beal translation: With respect to the people belonging to these three <four?> rulers, the eastern region is considered the best; the doors of their dwellings open towards the east, and when the sun rises in the morning they turn toward it and salute it. In this country the south side is considered the most honorable. Such are the leading characteristics in respect of manners and customs relating to these regions. But in regard to the rules of politeness observed between the prince and his subjects, between superiors and inferiors, and with respect to laws and literature, the land of "the lord of men" is greatly in advance. The country of "the lord of elephants" is distinguished for rules which relate to purifying the heart and release from the ties of life and death; this is its leading excellency.>

All these matters are set forth in authoritative writings and are learned from local hearsay. From a wide study of the modern world and the old, and a minute examination of what is seen and heard, we learn that Buddha arose in the west region and his religion spread to the east country (China), and that in the translation words have been wrongly used and idioms misapplied. By a misuse of words the meaning is lost and by wrong phrases the doctrine is perverted. Hence it is said "What is necessary is to have correct terms" and to set value on the absence of faulty expressions.

Now mankind differ in the quality of their natural dispositions and in their speech, the difference being partly due to local climatic circumstances and partly caused by continued use. As to varieties of physical scenery and natural products in the country of the Man-Lord (China), and as to the differences in the customs and dispositions of its people, these are all described in our national records. <The term used is fang-chih, which means 'books of travel'; Hsien-tsang's own record is referred to as a fang-chih.> The peoples of the Horse-Lord and the districts of the Lord of Precious Substances are detailed in our historical teachings, and a general account of them can be given. But as to the country of the Elephant-Lord, our ancient literature is without a description of it. We have the statement (made by Chang-Ch'ien) that "the land has much heat and moisture" and this other "the people are fond of benevolence and compassion"; such mention may occur in topographies but we cannot have thorough information. Whether caused by the alternate flourishing and depression of good government, or as the natural result of secular changes, the fact is that with reference to those who, knowing the due season for giving in allegiance and enjoying the benefits of <Chinese> civilization, came to the emperor's Court, who passing danger after danger sought admittance at the Yu-men <Pass>, and bearing tribute of native rarities bowed before the Palace Gate, we cannot relate their experiences.

For this reason I traveled far in quest of truth <that is, the Buddhist scriptures> in the intervals of my studies I kept notes of natural characteristics.

From the Black Range on this side <ie in China> all the people are Hu: and though Jungs are counted with these, yet the hordes and clans are distinct, and the boundaries of territories are defined.

<By the Black Range, Hsien-tsang evidently means Kapisa, the frontier country on the northern route to India--that is, the Silk Road. A great mountain range bounded Kapisa on the east, west and south; it was called the Hei Ling or Black Range; or else Siah-koh or Kara Tagh, names with the same meaning. By Hu, the pilgrim may have meant Turkic peoples, and by Jung Tibetan.>

For the most part these tribes are settled peoples with walled cities, practising agriculture and rearing cattle. They prize the possession of property, and slight humanity and public duty. Their marriages are without ceremonies and there are no distinctions as to social position: the wife's word prevails and the husband has a subordinate position. They burn their corpses and have no fixed period of mourning. They flay the face <in mourning> and cut off the ears: they clip their hair short and rend their garments. They slaughter the domestic animals and offer sacrifice to the manes of their dead. They wear white clothing on occasions of good luck and black clothing on unlucky occasions. This is a general summary of the manners and customs common to the tribes, but each state has its on political organization which will be described separately, and the manners and customs of India will be told in the subsequent Records.













Book One

Giving an Account of Thirty-Four Countries

From Kao-Ch'ang to the Thousand Springs

A-k'i-ni

Going from what was formerly the land of Kao-ch'ang we begin with the country nearest to it and called A-k'i-ni <or Yenk'i>: this is above 600 li from east to west and 400 li from north to south, its capital being six or seven li in circuit.

The country on four sides adjoins hills, with roads hazardous and easily defended. The various streams join in zones, and their water is led in for the cultivated land. The soil grows millet, spring wheat, scented jujubes, grapes, pears, and prunes. The climate is genial and the people have honest ways. Their writing is taken from that of India with slight modifications. Their garments are of fine and coarse woolen stuffs. The men cut their hair short and do not wear any head-dress. They use gold, silver and small copper coins. Their king is a native of the country, who is brave, but without practical ability and conceited. The country is without a political constitution, and its laws are not reduced to order.

There are above ten Buddhist monasteries with above 2000 ecclesiastics of all degrees, al adherents of the Sarvastivadin school of the "Small Vehicle" system. Since as to the sutra teachings and vinaya regulations they follow India, it is in its literature that students of these subjects study them thoroughly. They are very strict in the observance of the rules of their order but in food they mix the three pure <kinds of flesh> embarrassed by the "gradual teaching".

<Note: the san-ching or "three pure kinds of flesh" is explained as follows. In the Buddha's lifetime, a dispute rose among his Brethren because some of them were eating meat, for which others reproached them. After argument and furore, the Master called his Brethren together and taught them the law of the three pure kinds of flesh: they were not to eat the flesh of any animal which they had seen put to death for them, or about which they had been told it had been slaughtered for them, or about which they had reason to suspect it had been put to death for them. But he permitted that they eat the "pure" (or lawful) flesh of animals--the slaughter of which they had not seen, had not heard of, and did not suspect was on their account. Thus this meat came to be known as the three pures: unseen, unheard, unsuspected they called it. The meat which was unseen, unheard, unsuspected came to be one class of three types of flesh permitted to Buddhists; the other two classes were, from animals which had died naturally, and from animals killed by predators or birds of prey.

<The "gradual teaching" was an old division of the Buddha's personal teachings. The distinction is between gradual and instantaneous teachings; because the Buddha suited his teachings to their audience, the unenlightened were taught with simple truths and laws at first, which gradually led to higher truths and purer, more strenuous laws of self-denial. But the "instantaneous teaching" was the reverse. It took no note of circumstances; it instantly imparted sublime truths to be accepted instantly by higher minds; it taught universal morality, and dealt with rules that were eternal, without exceptions.>

Ku-chih

From Yenk'i we went south-west above 200 li, crossing a hill and two large rivers west to a plain, and after traveling above 700 li from that, we came to the Ku-chih country. This country was above 1000 li from east to west and 600 li from north to south: its capital being 17 or 18 li in circuit.

This country yields millet, wheat, rice, grapes, pomegranates, and plenty of pears, plums, peaches, and apricots. It also produces gold, copper, iron, lead, and tin: its climate is temperate and the people have honest ways: their writing was taken from that of India but has been much altered; they have great skill with wind- and stringed-musical instruments; they dress in variegated woollen cloth, cut their hair short, wear turbans, use coins of gold and silver and small copper ones, and they flatten the heads of their babies. Their king is a Kuchih man, he has few intellectual resources, and is under the sway of powerful statesmen.

There are in this country more than 100 Buddhist monasteries with above 5000 Brethren who adhere to the Sarvastivadin branch of the "Little Vehicle" and study the books of their religion in the language of India. These Brethren are also held in the gradual teaching and take along with other food the three pure kinds of flesh, but they are extremely punctilious in observing the rules of their code of discipline.

In the eastern part of Ku-chih was a large Dragon-Tank <Beal's version reads Dragon-Lake> which lay before a deva-temple to the north of a city. The dragons of this tank changed themselves into horses and then coupled with mares: the offspring of this union was a fierce intractable breed, but the next generation formed fine horses patient of harness, and of these there were very many. Local tradition tells of a king in recent times named Gold-Flower who by his regal ordinances and judicial impartiality moved the dragons to become his vehicles, and when he wanted to die he touched the dragon's ears with a whip, whereupon he sank out of sight with them to the present time. There were no wells in the city and the people drew water from the Tank: the dragons now changed themselves into men and had intercourse with the women: the offspring of this union became daring and fleet as horses, and all the inhabitants gradually came to have a mixture of the dragon in them; trusting to their might they made themselves feared, and came to slight the king's commands, whereupon the king brought in the Turks who slew all the living creatures in the city, and this was now a jungle without human inhabitants.

Above 40 li north of the depopulated city at the slopes of the hills, and separated by a river, are two monasteries which bear the common name Chao-hu-li distinguished respectively as Eastern or Western. The images of the Buddha in these monasteries are beautiful almost beyond human skill; and the Brethren are punctilious in discipline and devoted enthusiasts. In the Buddha-Hall of the East Chao-hu-li monastery is a slab of Jade-stone above two feet wide, of a pale yellow color, and like a clam, and on it is an imprint of the Buddha's foot; this is one foot eight inches long by above eight inches wide, and on fast days it sends forth a brilliant light.

<Here the traveler describes the capital of Ku'chih, its religious festivals and processions, and a monastery there founded in memory of a miracle. Watters is evidently too delicate-minded to relate the miracle. Perhaps he was one of those men who would also put fig-leaves on classic statuary? The following is from the Beal translation:>

The old records say: a former king of this country worshiped the "three precious" ones. Wishing to pay homage to the sacred relics of the outer world, he intrusted the affairs of the empire to his younger brother on the mother's side. The younger brother having received such orders, mutilated himself in order to prevent any evil risings <of passion>. He enclosed the mutilated parts in a golden casket, and laid it before the king. "What is this?" inquired the king. In reply he said, "On the day of your majesty's return home, I pray you open it and see." The king gave it to the manager of his affairs, who intrusted the casket to a portion of the king's bodyguard to keep. And now, in the end, there were certain mischief-making people who said, "The king's deputy, in his absence, has been debauching himself in the inner rooms of the women." The king hearing this, was very angry, and would have subjected his brother to cruel punishment. The brother said, "I dare not flee from punishment, but I pray you open the golden casket." The king accordingly opened it, and saw that it contained a mutilated member. Seeing it, he said, "What strange thing is this, and what does it signify?" Replying, the brother said, "Formerly, when the king proposed to go abroad, he ordered me to undertake the affairs of the government. Fearing the slanderous reports that might arise, I mutilated myself. You now have the proof of my foresight. Let the king look benignantly on me." The king was filled with the deepest reverence and strangely moved with affection; in consequence, he permitted him free ingress and egress throughout his palace.

After this is happened that the younger brother, going abroad, met by the way a herdsman who was arranging to geld five hundred oxen. On seeing this, he gave himself to reflection, and taking himself as an example of what they were to suffer, he was moved with increased compassion, <and said>, "are not my present sufferings the consequence of my conduct in some former condition of life?" He forthwith desired with money and precious jewels to redeem this herd of oxen. In consequence of this act of love, he recovered by degrees from mutilation, and on this account he ceased to enter the apartments of the women. The king, filled with wonder, asked him the reason of this, and having heard the matter from beginning to end, looked on him as a prodigy and from this circumstance the convent took its name, which he built to honor the conduct of his brother and perpetuate his name.

Poh-lu-ka

<Returning to the Watters translation:> From this, a journey of about 600 li east across a small desert brought me to the Poh-lu-ka country. This is about 600 li from east to west by more than 300 li from north to south, and its capital is five or six li in circuit. In general characteristics this country and its people resemble Ku-chih and its people, but the spoken language differs a little. The fine cloth and serge of the district are esteemed by the neighboring countries. There are some tens of monasteries with about 1000 Brethren, all adherents of the Sarvastivadin school.

Going north-west from Poh-lu-ka above 300 li passing along (or crossing) a stony desert, one comes to the Ling-Shan (Ice Mountain). This is the north beginning of the Ts'ung-Ling and most of the streams from it flow east. The gorges of the mountain accumulate snow and retain their coldness spring and summer, and although there is periodical melting the freezing sets in immediately; the path is dangerous, cold winds blow fiercely. There are many troubles from savage dragons who molest travelers: those going by this road cannot wear red clothes or carry calabashes or make a loud noise; a slight provocation causes immediate disaster; fierce winds burst forth and there is flying sand and showers of stones, those who encounter them die, life cannot be saved. A journey of over 400 li brings the pilgrim to a great clear lake above 1000 li in circuit, longer from east to west than from north to south. The lake has hills on all sides and is the meeting-place for various stream; its waters are of a deep azure hue and have a sharp brackish taste; it is a vast expanse with tumultuous billows. Fish and dragons live in it pell-mell, and supernatural prodigies appear in it occasionally. So travelers pray for good luck, and although fish abound no one would venture to catch them.

<Watters adds here: "A note to the text here tells us that this lake was the Hot Sea and Salt Sea of others. It is the Issik-kul or salt Hot Lake of the Turkic-speaking peoples and the Temurtu-nor or Ferruginous Lake of the Mongols. It is explained that the water of the Lake is not actually hot, but that the Lake was called 'Hot Sea' because although girt by snow-clad mountains its waters never froze."

<Translators and students of Hsien-tsang mostly agree that Kao-ch'ang was near modern Turfan, A-k'i-ni was the country round the old city of Karashahr (whose ruins lie to the west of modern Karashahr), Ku-chih is now Chinese K'u-ch'e, and Poh-lu-ka is probably Aksu. As for Lake Issik-kul, other travelers have described its property of never freezing, no matter how harsh the winter.>

Su-li

From Issik-kul going north-west, one travels above 500 li to the city of the Su-she water which is six or seven li in circuit. It is inhabited by traders and Tartars (Hu) from various districts; the country yields millet, wheat, grapes, but trees are sparse; its climate is regular and its winds cold; the people wear woolen (felt and serge) clothing. To the west of Su-she are some tens of isolated cities each with its own governor but all under the rule of the Turks.

<Here Hsien-tsang describes the people of this land, which is called Su-li. Beal translates part of the passage to read that the written and spoken language of these people is also called Su-li, and were evidently not Sanskrit, the language of Buddhist scholars; nor was this language the same as that spoken east of Su-li, it seems. Beal's translation goes on:> . . . The primary characters are few; in the beginning they were thirty or so in number; the words are composed by the combination of these; these combinations have produced a large and varied vocabulary . . .

<Note: This is almost word-for-word identical with a description of the Turkic language I once read. It is a beautiful language, the linguist describing it wrote; the basic vocabulary is smaller than that of other languages, but the words fit together to form an infinity of complex poetic expressions. The "30 or so" primary characters are also read 20 (in one surviving text) or 32 (in other translations); take your pick.>

Going above 400 li westward from the Su-she city, we come to the Thousand Springs. The district with this name is above 200 li square; it has snowy mountains on its south side and level land on the other sides; it has a rich moldy soil and trees everywhere; in the latter part of spring the place was an embroidery of flowers. There are a thousand springs and ponds and hence the name of the district; the Khan of the Turks comes here every year to escape the summer heat. The places contains flocks of tame deer, many of which wore bells and rings; the deer are cherished by the Khan who forbids the slaughter of any of them under the penalty of capital punishment, and so the deer live their natural lives.

At the Su-she-water city, I met with the Turk Sh'eh-hu Khan then on a hunting expedition. His military equipment was very grand. The Khan wore a green satin robe; his hair which was ten feet long was free; a band of white silk was wound round his forehead hanging down behind. The ministers of the presence, above 200 in number, all wearing embroidered robes and with plaited hair stood on his right and left. The rest of his military retinue clothed in fur, serge, and fine wool, the spears and standards and bows in order, and the riders of camels and horses stretched far away out of ken. The Khan was delighted to meet me and invited me to stay in the encampment during his absence which would be only for two or three days, giving me into the charge of a Minister of the presence named Ha-mo-chih. After three days the Khan returned and I was taken to his tent. The gold embroidery of this grand tent shone with a dazzling splendor; the ministers of the presence in attendance sat on mats in long rows on either side all dressed in magnificent brocade robes while the rest of the retinue on duty stood behind. I saw that although it was a case of a frontier ruler yet there was an air of distinction and elegance. The Khan came out from his tent about thirty paces to meet me, and after a courteous greeting I entered the tent. As the Turks are fire-worshipers they do not use wooden seats, as wood has the principle of fire, and they use double mats as seats: but for the pilgrim, the Khan provides an iron-framed bench with a mattress. After a short interval envoys from China and Kao-ch'ang were admitted and presented their despatched and credentials which the Khan perused. He was much elated and caused the envoys to be seated, then he ordered wine and music for himself and them and grape-syrup for me. Hereupon all pledged each other and the filling and passing and draining of the winecups made a din and bustle, while the mingled music of various instruments rose loud: although the airs were the popular strains of foreigners yet they pleased the senses and exhilarated the mental faculties. After a little, piles of roasted beef and mutton were served for the others, and lawful food such as cakes, milk, candy, honey and grapes for me. After the entertainment grape-syrup was again served and the Khan invited me to improve the occasion, whereupon I expounded the doctrines of the "ten virtues", compassion for animal life, and the Paramitas and emancipation. The Khan raising his hands bowed and gladly believed and accepted the teaching. He detained me some days and wanted to keep me permanently. "You need not go to the In-t'e-ka country," he urged, "that land is very hot, its 10th month being as the 5th of this place; juding from your appearance I fear you will not survive a visit; its people are contemptible being black and uncivilized." But I replied that notwithstanding all this I wanted to seek the traces of the Buddha and learn his religious system. Then the Khan sought out among his retainers a young man who had spent some years in Ch'ang-an and could speak Chinese and other languages. This young man he made Mo-to-ta-kuan and appointed him to go with me as far as Kapistet entrusting him also with despatches about me. The Khan, moreover, gave me a dark-red silk monk's suit and fifty webs of soft silk, and he and his ministers escorted me above 10 li on my way.

<These were the shih-shan or Ten Virtues, which the Mahayanist undertakes to observe: not to kill, not to steal, not to commit impurity, not to be false in language, not to be double-tongued, not to use bad language, not to use fine glossing speech, not to covet, not to be angry, not to take false heretical views.

<Ogilby's Persia contains the following passage: "In the beginning of the month Ramadhan, which is our Lent, the king goes to Abicurong in the mountains to take the fresh air, and to hunt, in which sport he spends several days, attended by some thousands of people. At the ears of those beasts which the king takes alive he hangs golden plates, on which are engraven certain marks, and then setting them at liberty again, often he retakes them; nay some have been taken who have had the marks of king Thamas, Ismail Sefi, and other ancient princes." There is a very pretty Persian legend concerning the immortal nature of deer; once when the king took a deer in the chase, the story goes, the whole court beheld with wonder how around its neck was a golden collar, and engraved on the collar was the name of Alexander of Macedon.>

Going above 200 li south-west from here, one reaches the Pai-shui-ch'eng or "White water city". This is six or seven li in circuit, and the district excels Tara in fertility of soil and in climate.

Kung-Yu

Continuing south-west, one goes from "White water city" for more than 200 li and arrives at the city Kung-yu or Kung-ya, which is five or six li in circuit. In this district the downs and marshes have a rich loamy soil and are densely covered with forests.

Nu-Chih-Kan

About 40 or 50 li south from Kung-yu city is the country of Nu-chih-kin or -kan. This country is above 1000 li in circuit and it has a soil rich and fertile, a dense vegetation and fruits and flowers in great luxuriance: grapes are thought much of although aplenty. There are a hundred odd cities and towns each with its own governor: but although the towns and their districts are mutually independent and distinct political divisions yet the collective name for all is the "Nu-Chih-kan Country".

Che-Shih (Tashkend)

From Nu-chih-kan going west above 200 li, one reaches the Che-shih country. This is above 1000 li in circuit, reaching from the west to the She (or Ye) river, being greater in extent from north to south than from east to west: in natural products and climbate it is like Nu-chih-kan: its cities and towns are some tens in number, each with its own chief magistrate and without any general chief, yet all subject to the Turks.

Fei-han (Ferghanah)

From this to the Fei-han country south-east is about 1000 li. This country, which is above 4000 li in circuit, is surrounded by mountains on all sides; it has a rich productive soil with flowers and fruits in great quantity, and it produces sheep and horses: it is windy and cold and the people are stout-hearted: in speech they differ from other countries, and they are ill-featured. For some tens of years the country has been without a sovereign, and the local chiefs struggle for superiority: their districts and cities are determined by rivers and natural defenses.

Su-tu-li-se-na

From this, going west above 1000 li one comes to the Su-tu-li-se-na country. This is 1400 li in circuit with the She (Jaxartes or Oxus) river on its east. The She river rises in the north end of the Ts'ung-Ling and flows north-west a great muddy rapid stream. In natural products and popular ways Su-tu-li-se-na resembles Che-shih: there is a king but he is under the Turks.

North-west from the Su-tu-li-se-na country you enter a great desert destitute of water and vegetation, a vast blank where only by following the mountains and observing the skeletons can the course be directed.

<Here is the same passage from the Beal translation:> North-west from this we enter on a great sandy desert, where there is neither water nor grass. The road is lost in the waste, which appears boundless, and only by looking in the direction of some great mountain, and following the guidance of the bones which lie scattered about, can we know the way in which we ought to go.

Sa-mei-kan (Samarkand)

Going above 500 li you reach the Sa-mei-kan country. It is 1600 or 1700 li in circuit, greater in extent from east to west than from north to south. Its capital is above 20 li in circuit, exceedingly strong and with a large population. The country is a great commercial entrepot, is very fertile, abounding in trees and flowers, and yielding many fine horses. Its inhabitants were skillful craftsmen, smart and energetic. All the Hu States regard this country as their center and make its social institutions their model. The king is a man of spirit and courage and is obeyed by the neighboring states. He has a splendid army the most of his soldiers being Chei-kie men. These are men of ardent valor, who look on death as a going back to their kindred, and against whom no foe could stand in combat.

Mi-mo-ho (possibly Maghian?)

South-east from Sa-mei-kan you go to the Mi-mo-ho country. This country, which is situated in the mountains, is 400 or 500 li in circuit, long from north to south and narrow from east to west. In the products of the land and the ways of the people it resembles Sa-mei-kan.

Kie-pu-tan-na

From this <probably Samarkand> north-west you arrive at the Kei-pu-tan-na country. It is about 1400 or 1500 li in circuit. It is broad from east to west, and narrow from north to south. It is like Sa-mei-kan in point of customs and products.

K'u-shuang-ni-ka

Going west from this country for above 300 li you come to the K'u-shuang-ni-ka or Ku-san-ni-ka country. The kingdom of K'u-shuang-ni-ka is 1400 or 1500 li in circuit; narrow from east to west, broad from north to south. It resembles Sa-mei-kan in point of customs and products.

Hoh-han

From this country it is above 200 li to the Hoh-han country. This country is about 1000 li in circuit; in point of customs and products it resembles Sa-mei-kan.

Pu-hoh (Bokhara)

West from Hoh-han 400 li is the Pu-hoh country. It is about 1000 li in circuit; in point of customs and products it resembles Sa-mei-kan.

Fah-ti

From this country west above 400 li is the Fah-ti country. This country is 400 li or so in circuit. In point of customs and products it resembles Sa-mei-kan.

Huo-li-si-mi-ka

From this, that is, Fah-ti it is over 500 li south-west to the Huo-li-si-mi-ka country. This lies along the banks of the Po-tsu (Oxus) being 20 or 30 li east to west and above 500 li north to south. In point of customs and produce it resembles the country of Fah-ti; the language, however, is a little different.

Ka-shuang-na

From the Sa-mei-kan country I went south-west above 300 li to the Ka-shuang-na or Kasanna country. This is 1400 or 1500 li in circuit and it resembles Sa-mei-kan in its natural products and the way and customs of the people.

From Ka-shuang-na I proceeded south-west above 200 li and entered a range of mountains. Here my path was a narrow risky track; there were no inhabitants and little grass or water. Traveling among the kills in a south-east direction for above 300 li I entered the Iron Pass (literally, Iron Gate). Along this Iron Pass on either side is a very high precipitous mountain. Although there is a narrow path in it this is still more inaccessible. The rocks which rise up on both sides are of an iron color; when the gates were set up they were also strengthened with iron, and numerous small iron bells were suspended on them. The name it bears was given to the Pass on account of its impregnable nature.

<Watters adds here, concerning the Iron Gate: "It is the Buzgola-Khana or Goat-house of the Hindus and it is known by other names. According to some its width varies from 40 to 60 feet and it is about two miles in length: a stream flows through it and it contains a village. The Life <of Hsien-Tsang> represents the actual gate as being made of the raw iron of the mountains plated with iron and furnished with iron bells, and hence . . . came the name of the pass or rather Gate. Later travelers relate that the Pass was guarded by a barrier (or barriers) of the iron-stone of the place clamped or faced with iron. But no one after <Hsien-Tsang's> time seems to have seen an actual gate hung with bells, and we read only of a tradition that there had once been a great gate. This Pass . . . is thus described by a recent writer (Tarikh-i-Rashid, trans. by Elias and Ross): 'The famous ravine of the Iron Gate winds through a high mountain chain, about twelve versts to the west of Derbent. It is a narrow cleft, 5 to 36 paces wide and about two versts long. It is known now as Buzghala Khana (i.e. the house of Goats). Its eastern termination is 3540 feet above the sea; its western termination is 3740 feet. A torrent, Buzghala Khana bulak flows, through it.'">

Tu-Huo-lo (Tokhara)

Going out of the Iron Pass you reach the Tu-huo-lo country. This is above 1000 li north to south and 3000 li east to west; it reaches on the east to the Ts'ung-Ling, on the west to Persia, on the south to the Great Snow Mountains (the Hindu-Kush) and on the north to the Iron Pass; the river Oxus flows through the middle of it from east to west; for several centuries the succession to the sovereignty has been interrupted and the country is divided into twenty-seven states with separate chiefs and all subject to the Turks. When the climate becomes warm there is much sickness, and at the end of winter and beginning of spring there is constant rain; hence in all the countries south of this to Lan-p'o much heat-sickness is a natural characteristic; hence the Buddhist Brethren go into Retreat of the rainy season on the 16th day of the 12th month and go out on the 15th day of the 3rd month; this is because there is much rain then, thus making their religious precepts conform to the seasons. The people are pusillanimous and ill-favored, but they are in a manner reliable and are not given to deceitful ways. They have a peculiar spoken language and an alphabet of 25 letters, their writing is horizontal from left to right, and their records have gradually increased until they exceed those of Su-li in number. They have for clothing more calico than serge; their currency consists of gold, silver and other coins which are different from those of other countries.

Following the course of the Oxus down northwards you come to Ta-mi. This country is above 600 li long (from east to west) and 400 li broad (from north to south), and its capital is above 20 li in circuit longer than broad. There are above ten monasteries with more than 1000 Brethren: its topes and images of Buddha are very remarkable and exhibit miracles.

To the east of Ta-mi is the Chih-ga-yen-na country, above 400 li long by 500 li wide, its capital being above ten li in circuit. It has five monasteries but the Buddhist Brethren are very few.

To the east of it is the Hu-lu-mo country, above 100 li long and 300 broad with a capital above ten li in circuit. Its king is a Hi-su Turk: it has two monasteries and above 100 Buddhist Brethren.

To the east of it is Su-man which is above 400 li long by 100 li broad, its capital being 16 or 17 li in circuit; its king is a Hi-su Turk; there are two monasteries and very few Buddhist Brethren.

To the south-west and on the Oxus is Ku-ho-yen-na. This country is above 200 li long and 300 li wide, its capital being above ten li in circuit. It has three monasteries and above 100 Buddhist Brethren.

To the east is Huo-sha, a country above 300 li long by 500 li wide, its capital being 16 or 17 li in circuit.

On its east is the Ko-tu-lu country above 1000 li long and the same in width, its capital being 20 li in circuit. It reaches to the east to the Ku-mi-te country in the Ts'ung-Ling.

The Ku-mi-te country is above 2000 li long and 200 li wide; it is in the Ts-ung-Ling mountains; its capital is above 20 li in circuit: on the south-east it is near the Oxus and on the south it adjoined the Shih-k'i-ni country.

To the south across the Oxus are the countries called Ta-mo-si-t'ie-ti, Po-to-chuang-na, Yin-po-kan, Ku-lang-na, Hi-mo-ta-la, Po-li-ho, Ki-li-si-mo, Ko-lo-hu, A-li-ni, Meng-kan. South-east from the Huo (Kunduz) country are the K'uo-si-to and An-ta-lo-fo countries, the circumstances above these being related in the account of the return journey. South-west from Huo is the Fo-ka-lang country which is above 50 li long and 200 li broad, its capital being above ten li in circuit. South of it is the Ki-lu-si-min-kan country which is above 1000 li in circuit, its capital being 14 or 15 li in circuit. To the north-west of it is the Hu-lin country which is above 800 li in circuit with its capital five or six in circuit. It has above ten monasteries with more than 500 Buddhist Brethren.

Fo-ho (Balkh)

Going west (from Hu-lin) you reach Fo-ho. This country is above 800 li from east to west and 400 li north to south, reaching on the north to the Oxus. The capital, which all call "Little Rajagriha city" is above twenty li in circuit, but though it is strong it is thinly peopled. In natural products the district is rich and the land and water flowers are too many to enumerate. There are above 100 Buddhist monasteries with more than 3000 Brethren all adherents of the "Small Vehicle" system.

Outside the capital on the south-west side is the Na-fo(Nava)-Sangharama or New Monastery built by a former king of the country. This is the only Buddhist establishment north of the Hindu-Kush in which there was a constant succession of Masters who were commentators on the canon. <Beal translates this sentence: 'The Masters (of Buddhism) who dwell to the north of the great Snowy Mountains and are authors of Sastras, occupy this convent only and continue their estimable labors here.'> The image of the Buddha in this monastery is artistically made of <according to one reading 'studded with'> noted precious substances, and its halls are adorned with costly rarities, hence it is plundered for gain by the chiefs of the various states. In the monastery is an image of Vaisravana deva which has bona fide miracles and in mysterious ways protects the establishment. Not long before the time of my visit, this deva frustrated an armed attempt of the Turkish governor, the son of a governor, to invade and plunder the monastery.

<Beal translates this passage differently:> 'Lately the son of the Khan Yeh-hu (or She-hu), belonging to the Turks, becoming rebellious, Yeh-hu Khan broke up his camping ground, and marched at the head of the horde, desiring to obtain the jewels and precious things with which it was enriched. Having encamped his army in the open ground, not far from the convent, in the night he had a dream. He saw Vaisravana Deva, who addressed him thus: "What power do you possess that you dare to overthrow this convent?" and then hurling his lance, he transfixed him with it. The Khan, affrighted, awoke, and his heart penetrated with sorrow, he told his dream to his followers, and then, to atone somewhat for his fault, he hastened to the convent to ask permission to confess his crime to the priests; but before he received an answer he died.'

<From Watters:> In the South Buddha-Hall of this establishment is Buddha's washing-basin about one tou in capacity: so bright and dazzling is the blending of colors in this basin that one could not well tell whether it was of stone or metal. There is also a tooth of the Buddha an inch long and 8/10ths of an inch broad, and there is his broom made of kasa grass above two feet long and about seven inches round, the handle being set with pearls. On the six festival days these relics are exhibited to the assembled lay and clerical worshipers. On such occasions the relics moved by the thorough sincerity of a worshiper may emit a brilliant light.

To the north of the New Monastery is a tope above 200 feet high which is plastered with diamond-cement. This tope is also ornamented with various precious substances, and it contains relics which sometimes shine with supernatural light.

South-west from the New Monastery is a ching-lu <literally, "cottage of the essential"> or Buddhist temple. This was built long ago, and has been the resort of Brethren of high spiritual attainments from all quarters. It has been found impossible to keep a record of those who here realized the four Fruits (that is, became arhats). So topes were erected for those arhats who when about to die made a public exhibition of their miraculous powers; the bases of these topes are very close together and are some hundreds odd in number. But no memorial erection is made in the case of those Brethren, about 1000 in number, who although arhats have died without exhibiting miracles. In this establishment are above 100 Brethren, who are day and night assiduous at their duties, and one cannot tell which is common monk and which is arhat. <But Beal translates the last sentence differently: 'At present the number of priests is about 100; so irregular are they morning and night in their duties, that it is hard to tell saints from sinners' - a considerable disagreement!>

At a distance of above 50 li north-west from the capital is T'i-wei's city and above 40 li to the north is Po-li's city. In each of these towns is a tope above thirty feet high. Now the story of these topes is this. As soon as Ju-lai long ago attained Buddhahood he went to the Bodhi Tree and thence to the Deer Park (near Benares). At this time two householders meeting him in his majestic glory gave him of their traveling provisions parched grain and honey. Bhagavat expounded to them what brings happiness to men and devas, and these two householders were the first to hear the Five Commandments and Ten Virtues. When they had received the religious teaching they requested something to worship, and Ju-lai gave them of his hair and nail-parings. The two men being about to return to their native country begged to have rule and pattern for their service of worship. Ju-lai thereupon making a square pile of his sanghati (or lower robe), laid it on the ground, and did the same with his uttarasaga (or outer robe) and his samhachchikam (the robe which goes under the arm-pits) in succession. On the ope of these he placed his bowl inverted, and then set up his mendicant's staff, thus making a tope. The two men, accepting the Ju-lai's instructions, returned each to his city, and according to the pattern thus taught by the Buddha they proceeded to erect these two topes, the very first in the dispensation of Sakayamuni Buddha. Above 70 li west of the capital is a tope which was built in the time of Kasyapa Buddha.

Yue-mei

South-west from the capital <of Balkh> coming into a corner of the Snowy Mountains you arrive at the Yue-mei (or mo)-t'e country. This is 50 or 60 li long by 100 li wide, and its capital is above ten li in circuit.

To the south-west <of Yeu-mei-t'e> is the Hu-shih-kan country. This is above 500 li long and above 1000 li broad, and its capital is above 20 li in circuit: it has many hills and vales and yields good horses.

North-west <from Hu-shih-kan> is Ta-la-kan. This country is above 500 li long by 50 or 60 li wide, and its capital is more than ten li in circuit: on the west it adjoins Po-la-ssu (Persia).

From Balkh I went south more than 100 li to Kie(Ka)-chih. This country is above 500 li long and 300 li wide, and its capital is five or six li in circuit. It is a very stony, hilly country with few fruits and flowers but much pulse and wheat; the climate is very cold; the people's ways are hard and brusque. There are more than ten monasteries with 800 Brethren all attached to the Sarvastivadin school of the "Small Vehicle" system.

Fan-yen-na (Bamian)

Going south-east from Ka-chih country, I entered the Great Snowy mountains. These mountains are lofty and their defiles deep, with peaks and precipices fraught with peril. Wind and snow alternate incessantly, and at midsummer it is still cold. Piled up snow fills the valleys and the mountain tracks are hard to follow. There are gods of the mountains and impish sprites which in their anger send forth monstrous apparitions, and the mountains are infested by troops of robbers who make murder their occupation.

A journey of above 600 li brought me out of the limits of the Tokhara country and into the Fan-yen-na country. This is above 2000 li from east to west and 300 li from north to south. It is in the midst of the Snowy Mountains, and its inhabitants taking advantage of the mountains and defiles have their towns in strong places. The capital, which is built at a steep bank and across a defile, has a high cliff on its north side and is six or seven li in length. The country is very cold; it yields early wheat, has little fruit or flower, but has good pasture for sheep and horses. The people have harsh rude ways; they mostly wear furs and serges, which are of local origin. Their written language, their popular institutions, and their currency are like those of Tokhara, and they resemble the people of that country in appearance but differ from them in their spoken language. In honesty of disposition they are far above the neighboring countries, and they make offerings and pay reverence with perfect sincerity to <all objects of worship> from the Three Precious ones of Buddhism down to all the gods. Traders coming and going on business, whether the gods show favorable omens or exhibit sinister manifestations, pay worship <literally, 'seek religious merit'>.

Here are some tens of Buddhist monasteries with several thousands of Brethren who were adherents of that Hinayana school which declares that <Buddha> transcends the ordinary, that is, the Lokottaravadin School. <Note: this school was a sect whose founders believed the Buddhas were not begotten and born as human beings, that there was nothing worldly in them, but that they were altogether above the world, world-transcending.> On the declivity of a hill to the north-east of the capital is a standing image of Buddha made of stone, 140 or 150 feet high, of a brilliant golden color and resplendent with ornamentation of precious substances. To the east of it is a Buddhist monastery built by a former king of the country. East of this is a standing image of Sakyamuni Buddha above 100 feet high, made of t'u-shih <probably 'bronze'>, the pieces of which have been cast separately and then welded together into one figure.

<Note: this country, Fan-yen-na, has been identified as Bamian, the ancient Buddhist holy place; in the thirteenth century, the city there was razed to the ground by Genghis Khan. Watters goes on to remark that "writing from reports of recent travelers Colonel Yule tells us: 'The prominences of the cliffs which line the valley of Bamian are crowned by the remains of numerous massive towers, whilst their precipitous faces are for six or seven miles pierced by an infinity of anciently excavated caves, some of which are still occupied as dwellings. The actual site of the old city is marked by mounds and remains of walls, and on an isolated rock in the middle of the valley are the considerable ruins of what appear to have been the acropolis, now known as Ghulghula.'"

<The giant Buddhas painted on the cliffs at Bamian are famous. Beal wrote that the images were noticed (that is, by Europeans) during the campaign in Afghanistan in 1843. General Kaye described them (Proc. Royal Geographic Society, vol. I. 1879, pp. 248-249): "On the opposite side of the valley from the great (standing) image, about a mile to the west, a stony gully leads into the hills. A short way up this there is a nearly insulated rock, on the flat summit of which there is in relief a recumbent figure, bearing a rude resemblance to a huge lizard," which, Beal comments, the people now call Azhdaha, or the dragon slain by a Muhammadan pir. Islamic sources gave names to the three images: the two larger figures were called Surkh-but (red image) and Khink-but (grey image) and the recumbent figure was called Nesr.>

In a monastery 12 or 13 li to the east of the capital is a recumbent image of the Buddha in Nirvana above 1000 feet long. Here the king holds the Quinquennial Assembly at which he is wont to give away to the monks all his possessions from the queen down, his officials afterwards redeeming the valuables from the monks.

In this monastery there was also Sanakavasa's sanghati in nine stripes, of a dark red color, made of cloth woven from the fibre of the sanaka plant. This man, a disciple of Ananda, in a former existence gave to a congregation of Brethren on the day of their leaving Retreat sanaka robes. By the merit of this act in 500 subsequent births, intermediate and human, he always wore clothing of this material. In his last existence he was born in this attire and his natal garment grew with his growth; when he was admitted into the Church by Ananda the garment became a nine-striped sanghati. When Sanakasvasa was about to pass away he went into the "Border-limit" samadhi and, by the force of his desire aiming at wisdom, he left this robe to last while Buddhism endures and undergo destruction when Buddhism comes to an end. At this time the robe has suffered some diminution, and this was proof to believers.

Ka-pi-shih (possibly Kafir, modern Kafiristan)

Going east from this, I entered the Snowy Mountains, crossed a black range and reached Ka-pi-shih. This country is above 4000 li in circuit with the Snowy Mountains on its north and having black ranges on its other sides; the capital is above ten li in circuit. It yields various cereals, and fruit and timber, and excellent horses and saffron; many rare commodities from other regions are collected in this country; its climate is cold and windy; the people are of a violent rude disposition, use a coarse vulgar language, and marry in a miscellaneous manner. The written language is very like that of Tokhara; but the colloquial idiom and the social institutions of the people are different. For inner clothing they wear woollen cloth, and for their outer garments skins and serge. Their gold, silver, and small copper coins differ in style and appearance from those of other countries. The king, who is of the Kshatriya caste, is an intelligent courageous man, and his power extends over more than ten of the neighboring lands; he is a benevolent ruler and an adherent of Buddhism. He makes every year a silver image of Buddha 18 feet high, and at the Moksha-parishad he gives liberally to the needy and to widows and widowers. There are above 100 monasteries with more than 6000 Brethren who are chiefly Mahayanists; the topes and monasteries are lofty and spacious and are kept in good order. Of Deva-temples there are some tens; and above 1000 professed Sectarians, Digambaras, and Pamsupatas, and those who wear wreaths of skulls as head-ornaments.

<Note: the word here translated by Watters as 'saffron' is rendered by other translators as 'curcuma'.>

About three or four li east of the capital under the north mountain is a large monastery with above 300 Brethren all Hinayanists. Its history, I learned, was this. When Kanishka reigned in Gandhara his power reached the neighboring states and his influence extended to distant regions. As he kept order by military rule over a wide territory reaching to the east of the Ts'ung-Ling, a tributary state of China to the west of the Yellow River through fear of the king's power sent him <princes as> hostages. On the arrival of the hostages Kanishka treated them with great courtesy and provided them with different residences according to the seasons. The winter was spent in India, the summer in Kafir, and the spring and autumn in Gandhara. At each residence a monastery was erected, this one being at the summer residence. Hence the walls of the chambers had paintings of the hostages who in appearance and dress were somewhat like the Chinese. When the hostages returned to their homes they fondly remembered their residence here, and continued to send it religious offerings. So the Brethren of this monastery with grateful feelings had kept up religious services on behalf of the hostages every year at the beginning and end of the Rain-season Retreat. To the south of the east door of the Buddha's-Hall of the Monastery, under the right foot of the image of the Lord over the Gods, is a pit containing a buried treasure deposited there by the hostages. There is an inscription which states that when the monastery fell into disrepair the treasure was to be used for its repairs. In late times a frontier king had coveted the treasure and tried to steal it, but the figure of a parrot on the God's crown by flapping his wings and screaming frightened the king and his soldiers; the earth also quaked and the king and his soldiers fell down stiff; when they recovered they confessed their guilt and went away home.

To the north of the hostages' monastery, there are caves in the mountains. Here the hostages practiced samadhi, and in the caves are hidden treasures guarded by a yaksha. On a mountain two or three li west of the caves is an image of Kuan-tzu-tsai P'usa; to devotees of perfect earnestness the P'usa wold come forth from the image and comfort them with the sight of his beautiful body. Above 30 li south-east from the capital is the Rahula monastery with its marvel-working tope, built by a statesmen named Rahula.

<Going on from the Beal translation:> On sacred days (fast days) this building reflects a brilliant light. Above the cupola, from between the interstices of the stone, there exudes a black scented oil, whilst in the quiet night may be heard the sounds of music. According to tradition, this stupa <ie tope> was formerly built by Rahula, a great minister of this country. Having completed this work of merit, he saw in a night-dream a man who said to him, "This stupa you have built has no sacred relic in it as yet; tomorrow, when they come to offer, you must make your request to the king <for the offering brought>."

On the morrow, entering the royal count, he pressed his claim and said: "Your unworthy subject ventures to make a request." The king replied: "And what does my lord require?" Answering, he said, "That your majesty would be pleased to favor me by conferring on me the first offering made this day." The king replied: "I consent."

Rahula on this went forth and stood at the palace gate. Looking at all who came towards the spot, suddenly he beheld a man holding in his hand a relic casket. The great minister said, "what is your will? what have you to offer?" He replied, "Some relics of Buddha." The minister answered, "I will protect them for you. I will first go and tell the king." Rahula, fearing lest the king on account of the great value of the relics shold repent him of his former promise, went quickly to the sangharama and mounted the stupa; by the power of his great faith, the stone cupola opened itself, and then he placed the relics therein. This being done, he was quickly coming out when he caught the hem of his garment in the stone. The king sent to pursue him, but by the time the messengers arrived at the stupa, the stones had closed over him; and this is the reason why a black oily substance exudes from the crevices of the building.

<Returning to the Watters translation:> To the south of this city and at a distance of above 30 li from it is the A-lu-no Mountain, steep and lofty, with gloomy cliffs and gorges. Every <New>-year the summit increases in height several hundreds of feet appearing to look toward the Shu-na-si-lo Mountain in Tsao-ku-t'a, and then it suddenly collapses. The explanation given to me by the natives is this. Once the god Shu-na arriving from afar wanted to stop on this mountain, but the god of the mountain becoming alarmed made a convulsion. Shu-na deva then said to him-- "You make this commotion because you do not want me to lodge with you; if you had granted me a little hospitality I should have filled you with riches; now I go to the Tsao-ku-t'a country to the Shu-na-si-lo mountain, and every <New>-year when I am receiving the worship and offerings of the king and statesmen you are to be a subordinate spectator." Hence the A-lu-no mountain increases its height and then suddenly collapses.

Above 200 li north-west of the capital is a great Snowy Mountain on the top of which is a lake, and prayer made at it for rain or fine weather are answered.

In the time of Kanishka, the Dragon-king of this lake was a fierce malicious creature who in his previous existence had been the novice attending an arhat of Gandhara. As such in an access of passion and envy he had prayed to become a Naga-king in his next birth, and accordingly on his death he came into the world as the Dragon-king of this lake. Keeping up his old bad feelings he killed the old Dragon-king; and sent rain and storm to destroy the trees and the Buddhist monastery at the foot of the mountain. Kanishka enraged at the persistent malice of the creature proceeded to fill up his lake. On this the Dragon-king became alarmed and assuming the form of an old brahmin he remonstrated earnestly with the king <literally 'striking the king's elephant he remonstrated' - from a Chinese phrase>. In the end the king and the Dragon made a covenant by which Kanishka was to rebuild the monastery and erect a tope; the latter was to serve as a lookout, and when the watchman on this observed dark clouds rising on the mountain the gong was to be at once sounded, whereupon the bad temper of the Dragon would cease. The tope still continued to be used for the purpose for which it was erected. It is reported to contain flesh-and-bone relics of the Ju-lai about a pint in quantity, and from these proceeded countless miracles.

<But Beal gives the same story with many more dramatic flourishes:> Tradition says in old time there was an arhat belonging to Gandhara who constantly received the religious offerings of the Naga king of the lake. On the arrival of the time for the mid-day meal, by his spiritual power he rose with the mat on which he sat into the air, and went (to the place where the Naga dwelt). His attendant, a novice, secretly catching hold of the under part of the mat, when the time came for the arhat to go, was transported in a moment with him. On arriving at the palace, the Naga saw the novice. The Naga-raja asking them to partake of his hospitality, he provided the arhat with "immortal food," but gave to the novice food used by men. The arhat having finished his meal, began then to preach for the good of the Naga, whilst he desired the novice, as was his custom, to wash out his alms-bowl. Now the bowl happened to have in it some fragments of (the heavenly) food. Startled at the fragrance of this food, the forthwith there arose in him an evil determination. Irritated with his master, and hating the Naga, he uttered the prayer that the force of all his religious merit might now be brought into operation with a view to deprive the Naga of life, and, "May I," he said, "myself become a Naga-king."

No sooner had the novice made this vow than the Naga perceived his head to be in pain.

The arhat having finished his preaching concerning the duty of repentance, the Naga-raja confessed his sins, condemning himself. But the novice still cherishing hatred in his heart, confessed not. And now having returned to the sangharama, in very truth the prayer he had put up in consequence of the power of his religious merit was accomplished, and that very night he died and became a Naga-raja. Then filled with rage, he entered the lake and killed the other Naga king, and took possession of his palace; moreover, he attached to himself the whole fraternity of his class (ie, all the Nagas) to enable him to carry out his original purpose. Then fiercely raising the winds and tempests, he rooted up the trees and aimed at the destruction of the convent.

At this time Kanishka-raja, surprised at the ravages, inquired of the arhat as to the cause, on which he told the whole circumstance. The king therefore, for the sake of the Naga, founded a sangharama at the foot of the Snowy Mountains, and raised a stupa about 100 feet in height. The Naga, cherishing his former hatred, raised the wind and rain. The king persevering in his purpose of charity, the Naga redoubled his fury (angry poison), and became exceedingly fierce. Six times he destroyed the sangharama and the stupa, nd on the seventh occasion Kanishka, confused by his failure, determined to fill the Naga's lake and destroy the palace. He came therefore with his soldiers to the foot of the Snowy Mountains.

Then the Naga-raja, being terrified and shaken with apprehension, changed himself into an aged Brahman, and bowing down before the king's elephant, he remonstrated with the king, and said, "Maharaja, because of your accumulated merit in former births, you have now been born a king of men, and you have no wish which is not gratified. Why then today are you seeking a quarrel with a Naga? Nagas are only brutish creatures. Nevertheless amongst lower creatures the Naga possesses great power, which cannot be resisted. He rides on the clouds, drives the winds, passes through space, and glides over the waters; no human power can conquer him. Why then is the king's heart so angry? You have now raised the army of your country to fight with a single dragon; if you conquer, your renown will not spread very far, but if you are conquered, then you will suffer the humiliation of defeat. Let me advise the king to withdraw his troops."

The king Kanishka hesitating to comply, the dragon returned to his lake. His voice, like the thunderclap, shook the earth, and the fierce winds tore up the trees, whilst stones and sand pelted down like rain; the sombre clouds obscured the air, so that the army and the horses were filled with terror. The king then paid his adoration to the Three Precious ones, and sought their help, saying, "My abounding merit during former births has brought about my state as king of men. By my power I have restrained the strong and conquered the world (Jambudvipa). But now, by the onslaught of a dragon-beast overcome, this, verily, is proof of my poor merit! Let the full power of all my merit now appear!"

Then from both his shoulders there arose a great flame and smoke (or, a great smoke-brightness). The dragon fled, the winds hushed, the mists were melted, and the clouds were scattered. Then the king commanded each man of his army to take a stone and thus to fill up the dragon lake.

Again the dragon changed himself into a Brahman, and asked the king once more, "I am the Naga king of yonder lake. Affrighted by your power, I tender my submission. Would that the king in pity might forgive my former faults! The king indeed loves to defend and cherish all animated beings, why then alone against me is he incensed! If the king kill me, then we both shall fall into an 'evil way' - the king, for killing; I, for cherishing an angry mind. Deeds and their consequences will be plainly manifested when the good and evil are brought to light."

The king then agreed with the Naga that if hereafter he should again be rebellious there should be no forgiveness. The Naga said, "Because of my evil deeds I have received a dragon form. The nature of Nagas is fierce and wicked, so that they are unable to control themselves; if by chance an angry heart rises in me, it will be from forgetfulness of our present compact. The king may now build the sangharama once more; I will not venture to destroy it again. Each day let the king send a man to observe the mountain top; if it is black with clouds, then let hm sound the ghanta (drum or cymbal) loudly; when I hear the sound of it, my evil purpose will subside."

Forthwith the king renewed his work in raising the sangharama and stupa. People look out for the clouds and mists on the mountain top down to the present day. Tradition says that in this stupa there is a considerable quantity of relics (sarira) of Tathagata, consisting of his bones and flesh, and that wonderful miracles are wrought thereby, which it would be difficult to name separately. At one time, from within the stupa there arose suddenly a smoke, which was quickly followed by a fierce flame of fire. On this occasion the people said the stupa was consumed. They gazed for a long time till the fire was expended and the smoke disappeared, when they beheld a Sarira like a white pearl gem, which moved with a circular motion round the surrounding pole of the stupa; it then separated itself and ascended up on high to the region of the clouds, and after scintillating there awhile, again descended with a circular motion.

<Back to Watters:> To the north-west of the capital on the south bank of a large river is an Old King's Monastery which has a milk-tooth one inch long of Sakya P'usa. South-east from this is another monastery also called "Old King's", and in this was a slice of Ju-lai's ushnisha <ie skull-bone?> above an inch wide of a yellow-white color with the hair pores distinct. It also has a hair of Ju-lai's head of a dark violet <or perhaps auburn> color above a foot long but curled up to about half an inch. The ushnisha was worshiped by the king and great officials on the six fast days. To the south-west of this monastery is the Old Queen's monastery in which is a gilt copper tope above 100 feet high said to contain relics of Buddha.

To the south-west of the capital is the Pi-lo-sho-lo mountain. This place was given to the mountain from its presiding genius who had the form of an elephant and was therefore called Pi-lo-sho-lo. When the Ju-lai was on earth this god once invited him and the 1200 great arhats to his mountain, and here on a large flat rock he gave the Ju-lai worship and entertainment. On this rock, king Asoka afterwards built a tope above 100 feet high. This tope, which was supposed to contain about a pint of the Buddha's relics, was known to the people at the time of my visit as the Pi-lo-sho-lo tope.

To the north of this tope and at the base of a cliff is a Dragon Spring. In it the Buddha and the 1200 arhats cleansed their mouths, and chewed their tooth-sticks, after eating the food supplied to them by the god; their tooth-sticks being planted took root, and became the dense wood existing at the time of my visit. People who lived after the Buddha's time erected at the place a monastery to which they gave the name Ping (or P'i)-to-ka.

<From Beal:> Going eastward from this 600 li or so, across a continuation of mountains and valleys, the peaks being of a stupendous height, and skirting the black ridge <ie the Siah Koh range> we enter North India, and crossing the frontier, come to the country of Lan-po.

End of Book One









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Last Updated on November 26, 2000 by Sylvia